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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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“Processes that are relevant for XRCL include implicit attitudes (Greenwald et al., 1998), implicit stereotypes (Blair, 2001), implicit memory (Schacter, 1987), and implicit perception (Kihlstrom et al., 1992), which can influence the quality of the social interaction, social space, and ultimately…”
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“This would happen even when the participants were not aware of seeing that word before (see Schacter, 1987, for a review of many relevant studies).”
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“One such instance is implicit memory, often identified using a priming paradigm in which, for an example, a very brief, even subliminal, presentation of a stimulus leads to better recognition of an item that is phonetically or semantically related (e.g., Schacter, 1987 for review).”
BackgroundSeeing More Than We Can Know: Visual Attention and Category Activation
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Calvini, G. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1396 · Cited by 46
“For items that were presented (i.e., processed) before, one these have recently been actively represented in memory (see Roediger & McDermott, 1993; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Information-Integration Categorization Performance
Maddox, W. T., Glass, B. D., Wolosin, S. M., Savarie, Z. R., Bowen, C. W., Matthews, M. D., & Schnyer, D. M. (2009) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/32.11.1439 · Cited by 46
Repetitive disclosures in the MD&A
Li, H. (2019) · Journal of Business Finance & Accounting · doi:10.1111/jbfa.12405 · Cited by 46
“While a moderate level of repetition may produce the greatest message acceptance, it is difficult to identify such an optimal repetition level (Schacter 1987; Roediger III 2008).”
Wang, Y., Luppi, A. I., Fawcett, J. M., & Anderson, M. C. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.02.016 · Cited by 50
“…memory for an event yet reveal its unconscious influences through intact emotional conditioning (Bechara et al., 1995), repetition priming (Hamann & Squire, 1997; Schacter et al., 1993; Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990), and other forms of implicit memory (Gabrieli, 1998; Squire, 1992).”
BackgroundRoderer, T., & Roebers, C. M. (2014) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-013-9109-4 · Cited by 46
“Following Schacter’s (1987) distinction of implicit and explicit memory, such early monitoring processes can be characterized as implicit, as they are influenced by experience but do not require conscious or intentional recollection of those experiences.”
BackgroundEffect of Trait Anger on Cognitive Processing of Emotional Stimuli
Parrott, D. J., Zeichner, A., & Evces, M. R. (2005) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.3200/genp.132.1.67-80 · Cited by 50
Cross-Modal Feature and Conjunction Errors in Recognition Memory
Jones, T. C., Jacoby, L. L., & Gellis, L. A. (2001) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2001.2713 · Cited by 46
“Under a al-process approach, perceptual fluency or miliarity is thought to be the basis for percept priming on implicit memory tests (for review on implicit memory, see Richadson-Klavehn Bjork, 1988; Roediger & McDermott, 199 Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundHughes, R. W., & Jones, D. M. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.31.2.316 · Cited by 46
“…that the difference between the digits-incongruent and digits-congruent order conditions was caused by some implicit positive priming process (e.g., Schacter, 1987) operating in the digits-congruent order condition due to the compatibility in the order of the irrelevant and relevant sequences in…”
BackgroundEffects of alcohol on controlled and automatic memory processes.
Kirchner, T., & Sayette, M. A. (2003) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.11.2.167 · Cited by 46
Implicit Memory is Vulnerable to Proactive Interference
Lustig, C., & Hasher, L. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00375 · Cited by 46
“These results suggest greater interference in implicit memory than in explicit memory, directly contradicting those of Graf and Schacter (1987).1 However, these two studies (Nelson et al., 1989; Winocur et al., 1996) do not provide conclusive evidence that the ability to retrieve the critical item…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPriming the Identification of Environmental Sounds
Stuart, G. P., & Jones, D. M. (1995) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749508401413 · Cited by 46
“Information-processing models such as those proposed by Schacter (1987); Burton and Bruce (1993); Craigie and Hanley (1993); Monsell (1985); Valentine, Moore, Flude, Young, and Ellis (1993), and their antecedent, the logogen model (Gipson, 1986; Morton, 1979; Shallice, McLeod, & Lewis, 1985),…”
MethodPerceptual priming in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases
Koivisto, M., Portin, R. I., & Rinne, J. O. (1996) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(95)00124-7 · Cited by 46
Rantamäki, T., & Kohtala, S. (2020) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pr.119.018697 · Cited by 45
“…1649, René Descartes referenced the involvement of what is now called an implicit (i.e., nondeclarative) memory by describing how “[an aversive childhood experience may] remain imprinted on the child’s brain to the end of his life [without] any memory remaining of it afterwards” (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundUnconscious knowledge: A survey
Augusto, L. M. (2010) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.2478/v10053-008-0081-5 · Cited by 49
“16 There are three main theoretical accounts of memory: the already known multiple memory system, and the activation and processing accounts (e.g., Schacter, 1987, p. 511).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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