Implicit memory: History and current status.

“…have been debated extensively in the literature on perception and learning without awareness (e.g., Cheesman & Merikle, 1986; Eriksen, 1960; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), and memory researchers would do well to attempt to incorporate some of the lessons from these investigations into research…”

“earlier experience is not remembered in the usual sense—that is, it is unavailable to self-report or introspection (cf. Graf & Schacter, 1985; Greenwald, 1990; Jacoby & Dallas, 1981; Jacoby, Lindsay, & Toth, 1992; Jacoby & Witherspoon, 1982; Kihlstrom, 1990; Roediger, Weldon, & Challis, 1989; Schacter, 1987).”

“…Hirsh, & White, 1989; Sutherland & Rudy, 1989), monkeys (Mishkin et al., 1984; Zola-Morgan & Squire, 1984), and humans (Cohen & Squire, 1980; Schacter, 1987; Weiskrantz, 1987) with hippocampal lesions have led to a different interpretation; namely, performance is spared on some nonspatial…”

“This greater speci city appears to characterize implicit memory as it is observed in normals as well as amnesics (Schacter, 1987).”

“Research on implicit memory (Roediger & McDermott 1993, Schacter 1987a), or so-called nonconscious memory (Jacoby 1991, Toth 2000), has overwhelmingly proved that one and the same behavioral response in a study/test experiment could represent conscious awareness of the retrieved item’s experimental…”

“…& Goldsmith, 1996; Metcalfe, 1993, 1996), and also with much of the work on nonemotional implicit memory processes (e.g., Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987, though some of the work on implicit memory with emotional conditioning, we would consider to be hot-system specific), as well as…”

“…event when their performance on some task shows evidence of their having been influenced by that prior event, even though they display no explicit memory for the event; i.e., they report no awareness of the event having occurred (see Schacter 1987, Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork 1988, Roediger 1990).”

“Across such varied research domains as attention and encoding (e.g., Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977), the uses of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1987 ), emotional appraisal (e.g., Lazarus, 1991), atti-”

“…aspects of the dual memory systems hypothesis is compelling, and numerous theorists have advanced basically similar views (Alvarez & Squire, 1994; McClelland et al., 1995; Milner, 1989; Murre, 1995; O'Keefe & Nadel, 1978; Sherry & Schacter, 1987; Tulving, 1983; see also Schacter & Tulving, 1994).”

“…of human amnesics: The priming data used to support the retrieval deficit hypothesis are accounted for by the fact that “global” amnesics are damaged only in declarative, not in nondeclarative, memory systems such as the one that supports repetition priming (Schacter 1987, Squire 1987).”

“Several of the new indirect measures were inspired by developments in implicit cognition research (e.g., Jacoby, Lindsay, & Toth, 1992; Schacter, 1987).”

“Schacter (1987) has referred to the descriptions of trau-”

“Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of California, San Diego, California 92161 KEYWORDS: declarative memory, nondeclarative memory, amnesia, hippocampus, brain systems”

“With respect to memory for stimulus surface details, implicit and explicit memory data differ in several interesting respects: First, memory for surface details is more often revealed by implicit measures than by explicit measures ( Schacter, 1987; Tenpenny, 1995).”

“…memory research shows that prior exposure to a target often benefits subsequent task performances, such as lexical decision, word completion, and anagram solving, that involve the identification of the perceptual features of the target (for reviews, see Roediger and McDermott 1992; Schacter 1987).”

“The identification advantage for familiarized instances lasts at least three weeks, requires as few as one previous presentation of an item, and is often tied to the specific physical properties of the initial exposure of the item (Schacter 1987).”

“…of experiences and facts (sometimes called declarative memory ; Cohen & Squire, 1980; Squire, 1992); and implicit or nondeclarative memory (Schacter, 1987), which is memory without awareness that is revealed by the effects of prior experience on behaviour without the individual…”

“Priming effects may be attributable to dissociations within the general domain of System II and perhaps to processes that are not readily captured by the System I-System II dichotomy (see Schacter, 1987, for discussion).”

“…IMPROVE- MENTS AND RECOVERY FROM SCEPTICISM In the late 1980s, subliminal perception was no longer an isolated domain in the study of non-conscious processing, given the emergence of great interest in implicit memory and implicit learning at that time (e.g. Kihlstrom 1987; Schacter 1987).”

“It includes, for example, fear learning (e.g., O ¨ hman & Mineka 2001), memory (e.g., Schacter 1987), reasoning (e.g., Evans 2003), decision making (e.g., Kahneman & Frederick 2002), and the activation of attitudes (e.g., Wilson et al. 2000).”

“The first was the recognition that there is more than one kind of memory (Cohen 1984; Schacter 1987; Squire 1982; Tulving 1985).”

“However, it may well be that warmth ratings do not always reflect the underlying cognitive convergence toward a solution, much as memories can surface without an anticipatory or accompanying experience of remembering (Bowers & Hilgard, 1988; Eich, 1984; Graf & Schacter, 1987; Schacter, 1987).”

“Donaldson & Rugg, 1998) suggest that the parietal recollection effect does not depend on intentional retrieval strategies, so the effect may be related to involuntary aspects of conscious recollection (RichardsonKlavehn & Gardiner, 1995; Richardson-Klavehn, Gardiner, & Java, 1996; Schacter, 1987; Schacter, Bowers, & B…”

“…activity that relies primarily on nonreportable processes and information may be vulnerable to verbalization, including creativity (Finke, 1990; Koestler, 1964), implicit concept learning (Reber, 1989), implicit memory (Schacter, 1987), and automated complex motor skills (Norman & Shallice, 1986).”

“…awareness has also been demonstrated in normal subjects injected with scopolamine, a drug that blocks the action of acetylcholine (Nissen, Knopman & Schacter, 1987) and in normal subjects (with focalattention , but without reported awareness) using verbal stimuli (Hartman, Knopman & Nissen, 1989).”

“Here we use the two sets of terms interchangeably as most explicit memory tasks appear to require the medial temporal lobe memory system (Squire, 1992) but the term “explicit memory” does not itself refer to any biological systems or mechanisms (Schacter, 1987).”

“1 0 , O c t o b e r 1 9 9 8 51 Schacter, D.L. et al. (1995) Brain regions associated with retrieval of structurally coherent visual information Nature 376, 587–590 52 Andreasen, N.C. et al. (1996) Neural substrates of facial recognition J. Neuropsychiatry 8, 139–146 53 Tulving, E. et al. (1996) Novelty and familiarity…”

“There has been much recent interest in cases in which a person's performance is influenced by specific prior events even though the person fails to remember those events on explicit tests (Jacoby, 1991; Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roediger, 1990; Roediger & Blaxton, 1987; Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990…”

“By definition, an effect of a prior experience on behavior or performance in the absence of a conscious memory is an implicit memory phenomenon (Schacter, 1987; Smith & Branscombe, 1988).”

“The review also focuses on research from the past five years, because several reviews deal thoroughly with earlier research (cf. Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork 1988 ; Roediger 199 0; Schacter 1987 ).”

“Two aspects of the results suggest that there is no explicit (Nelson, Schreiber, & McEvoy, 1992; Schacter, 1987) memory representation of perceptually encoded information without STC.”

“, 1989), between implicit and explicit learning and memory (e.g., Reber, 1989; Schacter, 1987), and between selective and nonselective learning (Berry & Broadbent, 1988; Hayes & Broadbent, 1988).”

“Related research with neurologically impaired patients (see Schacter, 1987, for a review) also provides strong evidence for the existence of a functional dissociation between”

“The observed double dissociation between motor skill leaming and lexical priming in HD and DAT patients indicates that different forms of implicit memory, all of which are reportedly intact in amnesic patients (see Schacter, 1987; Squire, 1987), are dependent upon distinct neuroanatomical systems.”

“the hippocampus is not essential for non-declarative or implicit memory (Schacter, 1987; Butters et al., 1990).”

“The right limbic novelty activations observed in the present study probably have little to do with processes required for priming, because it is known that medial temporal lobe damage does not produce impairment in perceptual priming (Schacter 1987; Squire 1987).”

“In humans, the integrity of these medial temporal lobe structures (termed the hippocampal system) enables conscious recollection or recognition of facts and events, known as explicit or declarative memor”

“Previous research (Schacter, 1987) has found that exposure to items makes them more likely to appear later on tests that do not require explicit recall of previous information.”

“In contrast, implicit memory is revealed when a previous episode influences performance on a test that does not require conscious recollection of this episode (for a review, see Schacter, 1987).”

“However, other evidence suggests the existence of preserved implicit representations without conscious awareness (e.g. Schacter, 1987).”

“According to theory, repetition priming reflects implicit memory, whereas recall and recognition reflect explicit memory (for reviews, see Jacoby & Brooks, 1984; Schacter, 1987).”

“However, there is good reason to believe that indirect tests are not process or factor pure (e.g., Jacoby, 1991; Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”

“The historical roots of dual-process models can be traced back to antiquity, often portrayed as a battle between “passion” and “reason” (Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009) and to many philosophers predating the origin of psychology in the 19th century (see Schacter, 1987; Wilson, 2002).”

“Indeed, a large body of experimental evidence (e.g. Schacter, 1987; Milner & Goodale, 1995; Weiskrantz, 1996; Merikle & Joordens, 1997) points towards the existence of sensing, i.e. the processing of visual information without accompaniment by visual experience, or by any conscious awareness at all.”

“…learn to perform complex skills without first obtaining a large amount of explicit declarative knowledge (e.g., Berry and Broadbent, 1988; Stanley et al., 1989; Lewicki et al., 1992; Willingham et al., 1989; Reber, 1989; Karmiloff-Smith, 1986; Schacter, 1987; Schraagen, 1993; Posner et al., 1997).”

“Moreover, the term implicit learning is easily confused with the term implicit memory (Schacter, 1987), which is used in situations in which evidence for memory is obtained by tests that do not require explicit recall of the material.”

“…reported, amnesic patients show deficits in recall or recognition, involving direct (explicit) tests of memory, but normal priming (or repetition effects) on indirect (implicit) tests of memory (e.g., Gabrieli, 1998; Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990).”

“Studies have drawn attention, for example, to impairment on subject-ordered tasks (Petrides and Milner, 1982), release from proactive interference (Moscovitch, 1982), or aspects of the `executive' component of working memory (Baddeley, 1986; Petrides, 2000).”

“chacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status.”

“various experimental manipulations affect priming and explicit memory in different and even opposite ways (for reviews, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987; Schacter, Chiu, & Ochsner, 1993; Shimamura, 1986).”