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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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“Les mesures implicites que nous avons choisies de présenter sont déjà utilisées depuis longtemps en psychologie cognitive (Schacter, 1987).”
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Schwartz, B. L., Rosse, R. B., Veazey, C., & Deutsch, S. I. (1996) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(95)00130-1 · Cited by 57
Goshen‐Gottstein, Y., & Moscovitch, M. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.21.5.1249 · Cited by 55
“Association-specific priming could not be obtained in amnesic patients (Cermak, Bleich, & Blackford, 1988; Mayes & Gooding, 1989; Schacter & Graf, 1986b; Shimamura & Squire, 1989) or in normal people who were unaware that memory was being tested (Bowers & Schacter, 1990; but see Howard, Fry, & Brune, 1991), though bot…”
BackgroundMemory impairment and auditory evoked potential gating deficit in schizophrenia
Hsieh, M. H., Liu, K., Liu, S.-K., Chiu, M., Hwu, H., & Chen, A. C. N. (2004) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2002.12.001 · Cited by 55
“ences or learning episodes facilitate performance on a task at hand without conscious or intentional recollection of those experiences or the context of the learning process (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundAssessing Demand Artifacts in Consumer Research: An Alternative Perspective
Darley, W. K., & Lim, J. (1993) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209364 · Cited by 56
Preferences Need No Inferences?: The Cognitive Basis of Unconscious Mere Exposure Effects
Klinger, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1994) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-410560-7.50010-7 · Cited by 55
Toilet rooms, body massages, and smells: Two field studies on human evaluative odor conditioning
Baeyens, F., Wrzesniewski, A., Houwer, J. D., & Eelen, P. (1996) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02686936 · Cited by 55
“…this observation suggests that Pavlovian odor conditioning may represent an instance of implicit retrieval of affective information from memory (Schacter, 1987), defined as "the ability of information from some prior episode to be retrieved and hence to influence current processing, but in the…”
BackgroundAdult Age Differences in Perceptually based, but not Conceptually based Implicit Tests of Memory
Small, B. J., Hultsch, D. F., & Masson, M. E. J. (1995) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/50b.3.p162 · Cited by 55
“This facilitation of task performance is called priming (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundPosttraumatic stress disorder with neurogenic amnesia for the traumatic event
Layton, B. S., & Wardi-Zonna, K. (1995) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854049508402050 · Cited by 55
Musen, G., & Squire, L. R. (1992) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03210928 · Cited by 57
Grimes, A., & Kitchen, P. J. (2007) · International Journal of Market Research · doi:10.1177/147078530704900205 · Cited by 54
Visual perception and phenomenal consciousness
Stoerig, P., & Cowey, A. (1995) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0166-4328(95)00050-x · Cited by 54
Implicit and explicit memory biases in mixed anxiety–depression
Tarsia, M. (2002) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00119-2 · Cited by 54
The need for a "psychoanalytic psychology" in the cognitive science field.
Bucci, W. (2000) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/0736-9735.17.2.203 · Cited by 57
“Implicit memory (Schacter, 1987) is identified through changes in performance following experimental interventions characterized as “priming,” without explicit recollection of the intervention itself.”
BackgroundArctic cognition: a study of cognitive performance in summer and winter at 69°N
Brennen, T., Martinussen, M., Hansen, B. O., & Hjemdal, O. (1999) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(199912)13:6 · Cited by 27
Alzheimer's disease and eyeblink conditioning: 750 ms trace vs. 400 ms delay paradigm
Woodruff‐Pak, D. S., & Papka, M. (1996) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/0197-4580(96)00022-x · Cited by 54
The dangerous practice of thinking§
Boreham, N. (1994) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.1994.tb02695.x · Cited by 54
“(For further discussion of the explicit-implicit distinction, see Schacter 1987, 1989; Weiskrantz 1988; Lewicki et al. 1992.)”
BackgroundUse of neuropsychological assessment in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Wolfe, J., & Charney, D. S. (1991) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.3.4.573 · Cited by 54
Implicit Memory: What Must Theories of Amnesia Explain?
Schacter, T. C. D. L. (1997) · Memory · doi:10.1080/741941153 · Cited by 54
“Alternatively, these kinds of priming effects may constitute an exam ple of what has been called``involuntary conscious m em ory' ' (cf Richardson-Klavehn, Gardiner, & Java, 1994; Richardson-Klavehn, Lee, Joubran, & Bjork, 1994; Schacter, 1987, 1994).”
CLUSTERING IN MUSIC: AN APPRAISAL OF TASK FACTORS*
Peretz, I. (1989) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.1989.10600040 · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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