Cited by 2,983Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsCognitive Functions and Memory

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Implicit memory: History and current status.

Schacter, Daniel L.·1987·Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

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Abstract

Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating

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“Conceptual implicit memory reflects the process by which associative or semantic cues prime the automatic retrieval of recently encountered information without any intentional recollection of the study event (Roediger & McDermott, 1993; Schacter, 1987).”
Effects of Comparative Advertising in High-and Low-Cognitive Elaboration Conditions
Chow, C. W. C., & Luk, C. (2006) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2006.10639229 · Cited by 67
Memory and Awareness
Schacter, D. L. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.280.5360.59 · Cited by 67
Self-citation
Implicit Memory: Effects of Elaboration Depend on Unitization
Schacter, D. L., & McGlynn, S. M. (1989) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422950 · Cited by 67
“…of Trustees of the University of Illinois This content downloaded from 204.235.148.92 on Sun, 07 Feb 2016 04:38:31 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SCHACTER AND MCGLYNN of memory can be dissociated experimentally (for review, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Priming and Aging: Further Evidence of Preserved Memory Function
Java, R. I., & Gardiner, J. M. (1991) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422852 · Cited by 67
“Recent reviews of these findings include those by Richardson-Klavehn and Bjork (1988), Roediger, Weldon, and Challis (1989), Schacter (1987), and Shimamura (1986).”
Background
Memory for Sponsorship Relationships: A Critical Juncture in Thinking
Cornwell, T. B., & Humphreys, M. S. (2013) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20614 · Cited by 72
“This facilitation of some action or behavior without conscious recollection is the essence of implicit memory (Schacter, 1987).”
Background
False fame prevented: Avoiding fluency effects without judgmental correction.
Topolinski, S., & Strack, F. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019260 · Cited by 68
“These findings extend the role of sensorimotor simulations to implicit memory (Schacter, 1987).”
Background
Serial position effects in implicit and explicit tests of memory.
Gershberg, F. B., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.20.6.1370 · Cited by 66
“Over the past decade, numerous studies have examined the distinction between explicit and implicit tests of memory (for reviews, see Graf & Masson, 1993; Lewandosky, Dunn, & Kirsner, 1989; Schacter, 1987).”
Background
Procedural learning and striatofrontal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease
Sarazin, M., Deweer, B., Merkl, A., Poser, N. V., Pillon, B., & Dubois, B. (2002) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.10018 · Cited by 66
“The analysis of saving rates yielded no significant difference between the two groups (F [1,18] 4 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Dissociative style and directed forgetting
Elzinga, B. M., de Beurs, E., Sergeant, J. A., Van Dyck, R., & Phaf, R. H. (2000) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1005559203356 · Cited by 66
“Implicit (nonconscious) memory performance is defined by a change in behavior that is attributable to some prior episode of experience when no explicit reference is made at test to this episode (Schacter, 1987).”
Background
On the scientific status of cognitive appraisal models of anxiety disorder.
McNally, R. (2001) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00073-5 · Cited by 64
Process dissociations versus task dissociations: a controversy in progress
Reingold, E. M., & Toth, J. P. (1995) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523109.003.0004 · Cited by 66
Implicit memory for words presented during anaesthesia
Jelícic, M., Bonke, B., Wolters, G., & Phaf, R. H. (1992) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541449208406243 · Cited by 66
From overt behavior to hypothetical behavior to memory: Inference in the wrong direction
Rachlin, H. C. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00033756 · Cited by 66
Imagery in the aftermath of viewing a traumatic film: Using cognitive tasks to modulate the development of involuntary memory
Deeprose, C., Zhang, S., DeJong, H., Dalgleish, T., & Holmes, E. A. (2012) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.10.008 · Cited by 65
“An involuntary memory would be a seemingly spontaneous recollection without deliberate intention to bring that event to mind (Anderson & Levy, 2009; Berntsen & Jacobsen, 2008; Johannessen & Berntsen, 2010; Mace, 2007; Mandler, 1994; Richardson-Klavehn, Gardner, & Java, 1994; Schacter, 1987).”
Background
The sensorimotor contributions to implicit memory, familiarity, and recollection.
Topolinski, S. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0025658 · Cited by 65
Topics of Thought
Berto, F. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192857491.001.0001 · Cited by 70
Tone of Voice and Mind
Cook, N. D. (2002) · Advances in consciousness research · doi:10.1075/aicr.47 · Cited by 65
Explicit and implicit confidence judgments and developmental differences in metamemory: an eye-tracking approach
Roderer, T., & Roebers, C. M. (2010) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-010-9059-z · Cited by 66
What cognitive representations underlie social attitudes?
Greenwald, A. G. (1990) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03334018 · Cited by 65
“There is an obvious connection between these findings and recent memory research that uses indirect measures to assess unconscious or implicit memory (Jacoby & Witherspoon, 1982; Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”
Background

Authors: Schacter, D. L.
Corresponding author: Schacter, Daniel L.
ORCID: Schacter, Daniel L.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1987-07
Volume: 13
Issue: 3
Pages: 501-518
ISSN: 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
1939-1285
DOI: 10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.501
OpenAlex: W2166869510
Cited by: 2,983
References: 177
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
FWCI: 56.24
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall

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Implicit memory: History and current status.

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