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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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“…based on scalp distribution alone these assumptions are tenuous, the current data are consistent with a large variety of neuropsychological (Schacter, 1987) and neuroimaging data (Nolde et al., 1998) that have demonstrated contributions of the prefrontal cortex to reinstatement of the…”
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BackgroundImplicit and Explicit Memory following Surgical Anesthesia
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“My main concern here will be to look at longer term systems: These are often divided between explicit and implicit systems (Schacter 1987) although I will primarily be concerned with explicit longer term stores.”
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“Given these dissociations it is not surprising that the study of anterograde amnesia has delivered important insights into the distinctions between long-term and short-term memory (Baddeley, 1990 ) and between explicit and implicit memory (Schacter, 1987 ).”
BackgroundA Memory Systems Model of Implicit Social Cognition
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“Implicit processes are the ‘‘dark matter’’ of the mind—the mental processes that operate in the absence of conscious awareness (Schacter, 1987).”
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“In one view, implicit memory is revealed in the absence of conscious recollection or at least is not dependent on conscious recollection (Schacter, 1987).”
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“A perusal of this literature makes it quite clear that these implicit, automatic, nonreflective cognitive processes differ in significant and important ways from the more typically studied explicit, conscious, reflective ones of problem solving, concept formation, associative learning, and the like, where the learning…”
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“The meanings of the terms implicit and explicit differ when they are associated with learning (as here) or memory ( Schacter, 1987 ).”
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“…perception, memory, and judgment are influenced by information that is not or is only partially accessible to consciousness (for reviews, see Goschke, 1997; Greenwald, 1992; Kihlstrom, 1987; Lieberman, 2000; Perrig & Wippich, 1995; Reber, 1993; Schacter, 1987; Seger, 1994; Stadler & Frensch, 1998).”
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Is the mind conscious, functional, or both?
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Form-specific explicit and implicit memory in the right cerebral hemisphere.
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“However, a vast amount of research has shown that performance on implicit and explicit memory tasks are differentially sensitive to the factors associated with underlying automatic and controlled memory processes with implicit memory tasks being especially sensitive to automatic memory processes and explicit tasks bei…”
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“…memory are actually used in several different ways: Implicit memory can be used to refer to memory that is revealed in the absence of conscious recollection, in contrast with expressions of explicit memory that are accompanied by conscious recollection (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”
Implicit and Explicit Memory for Verbal Information Presented during Sleep
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“In addition, research with both amnesic and normal subjects has demonstrated the existence of implicit r n~rnoy . that is, learning that does not require deliberate or conscious recollection of experience {see reviews by Richardson-Klavehn & Ejork, 1988. and Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDiazepam induces a dissociation between explicit and implicit memory
Danion, J., Zimmermann, M., Willard, D., Grang�, D., & Singer, L. (1989) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf00442815 · Cited by 104
“The memory assessed by these indirect memory tasks has been classified as implicit (Graf and Schacter 1985; Schacter 1987 ) or procedural (Squire 1986).”
BackgroundMethodPreserved Priming of Novel Objects in Patients with Memory Disorders
Schacter, D. L., Cooper, L. A., Tharan, M., & Rubens, A. B. (1991) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1991.3.2.117 · Cited by 105
“…depends on some of the same processes and structures that are involved in the acquisition of novel episodic information-processes and structures that are typically damaged in patients with memory disorders (cf. Gabrieli, Cohen, & Corkin, 1988; Schacter, 1987a; Squire, 1987; Tulving et al., 1991).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationThe function of consciousness or of information?
Navon, D. (1991) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00072022 · Cited by 104
An Influence of Product and Brand Name on Positive Affect: Implicit and Explicit Measures
Isen, A. M., Labroo, A. A., & Durlach, P. J. (2004) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/b:moem.0000027277.98917.9a · Cited by 105
“Use of such “unobtrusive measures” is not new (e.g., Estrada, Isen, & Young, 1994; Isen, Johnson, Mertz, & Robinson, 1985; Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest, 1966), but it has been expanded and facilitated by the conceptual development of implicit measures of memory (e.g., Schacter, 1987, also see Richardson-Klaveh…”
BackgroundWhat is remembered about early childhood events?
Pillemer, D. B. (1998) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(98)00042-7 · Cited by 103
The construction of Subjective Experience: Memory Attributions
Kelley, C. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1990) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.1990.tb00152.x · Cited by 104
Does organization improve priming?
Rappold, V. A., & Hashtroudi, S. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.17.1.103 · Cited by 103
Chapter 6 Levels of processing in emotion-antecedent appraisal
van Reekum, C. M., & Scherer, K. R. (1997) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(97)80123-9 · Cited by 103
Behavioural and Physiological Evidence for Covert Face Recognition in a Prosopagnosic Patient
de Haan, E. H. F., Bauer, R. M., & Greve, K. W. (1992) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(13)80167-0 · Cited by 102
Savings in relearning: II. On the formation of behavior-based trait associations and inferences.
Carlston, D. E., Skowronski, J. J., & Sparks, C. W. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.429 · Cited by 101
Josiassen, A., & Harzing, A.-W. K. (2008) · European Management Review · doi:10.1057/emr.2008.19 · Cited by 101
Repetition and reading: Perceptual encoding mechanisms are very abstract but not very interactive.
Carr, T. H., Brown, J. S., & Charalambous, A. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.15.5.763 · Cited by 101
Implicit and explicit memory and the automatid effortful distinction
Parkin, A. J., & Russo, R. (1990) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541449008406198 · Cited by 101
Reporting Recollective Experiences: Direct Access to Memory Systems?
Strack, F., & Förster, J. (1995) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00525.x · Cited by 101
Assessment of anaesthesia depth
Heier, T., & Steen, P. A. (1996) · Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.1996.tb05570.x · Cited by 101
Top-down versus bottom-up learning in cognitive skill acquisition
Sun, R., & Zhang, X. (2003) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2003.07.001 · Cited by 100
“Along with the simulation of other tasks (see Sun, 1999; Sun et al., 1998, 2001, 2003), we demonstrated that CLARION is capable of both bottom-up and top-down learning, although it was initially developed as a purely bottom-up learning model. The original reason for developing a bottom-up learning model was that in th…”
BackgroundMethodBargh, J. A. (2014) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.209 · Cited by 99
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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