The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer; Park, Lora E.

doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392

Cited by 1,402Personality Traits and PsychologyEmotions and Moral BehaviorDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392

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Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

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Self-esteem, defined as a person's sense of self-worth, is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.
“Researchers have found that self-esteem—defined as a person's sense of self-worth—is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.”
From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [4]

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“…and prejudice, alleviates " hardening of the attitudes " under conditions of uncertainty, and increases openness to negative or threatening information, thus facilitating learning (Fein & Spencer, 1997; McGregor, Zanna, Holmes, & Spencer, 2001; Sherman & Cohen, 2002; Steele, 1988; Tesser, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Negative behavior during marital conflict is associated with immunological down-regulation.
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Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and Evidence for its Salutary Effects
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/10478400701598298 · Cited by 3,654 · see citing works
Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought
Watkins, E. R. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 · Cited by 2,421 · see citing works
On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review
Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001 · Cited by 2,482 · see citing works
A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program
Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21923 · Cited by 2,253 · see citing works
Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.
Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0028931 · Cited by 2,123 · see citing works
Abusive Supervision in Work Organizations: Review, Synthesis, and Research Agenda
Tepper, B. J. (2007) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206307300812 · Cited by 1,698 · see citing works
Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning.
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004 · Cited by 1,627 · see citing works
The Meaning Maintenance Model: On the Coherence of Social Motivations
Heine, S. J., Proulx, T., & Vohs, K. D. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_1 · Cited by 1,437 · see citing works
A meta-analytic review of achievement goal measures: Different labels for the same constructs or different constructs with similar labels?
Hulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0018947 · Cited by 1,307 · see citing works
Self‐Compassion Versus Global Self‐Esteem: Two Different Ways of Relating to Oneself
Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00537.x · Cited by 1,258 · see citing works
Self-compassion and Psychological Resilience Among Adolescents and Young Adults
Neff, K. D., & McGehee, P. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902979307 · Cited by 1,232 · see citing works
Self‐Compassion, Self‐Esteem, and Well‐Being
Neff, K. D. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
Taking gender into account: theory and design for women's leadership development programs
Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. M. (2011) · Academy of Management Learning & Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2010.0046 · Cited by 1,003 · see citing works
Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention
Neff, K. D. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047 · Cited by 931 · see citing works
Motivational and emotional aspects of the self
Leary, M. R. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
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Psychological universals: what are they and how can we know?
Norenzayan, A., & Heine, S. J. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.763 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
Whistle While You Work
Erdoğan, B., Bauer, T. N., Truxillo, D. M., & Mansfield, L. R. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206311429379 · Cited by 804 · see citing works
Loving yourself abundantly: relationship of the narcissistic personality to self-and other perceptions of workplace deviance, leadership, and task and contextual performance.
Judge, T. A., LePine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.762 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Do people's self-views matter? Self-concept and self-esteem in everyday life.
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Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

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