The DOI matches its Crossref record; 272 of the 276 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 92 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms
Open accessAbstract
In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
100 Own result · 42 Own interpretation · 34 Own method · 33 No full text of the sources · 13 Sources not found · 9 Not checked yet · 9 No basis given · 6 Supported · 5 Partly supported · 2 Supported so far · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“odds ratios (ORs, female/male) for 12-month major depressive episode (MDE1) ranged from 1.2 to 2.7 across 18 countries and 89,037 participants”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results table of sociodemographic associations reports a female-to-male odds ratio of 1.2 for 12-month MDE in China, and the Sociodemographic factors text reports 2.7 in Spain. Methods > Sampling and procedure states that the study included 18 countries and 89,037 participants. The 1.2 estimate was not statistically significant, but the claim does not say that every odds ratio was significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelationaln = 89,037- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited findings in adulthood are inconsistent with respect to both the magnitude and direction of the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Angst et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mirowsky, 1996 source
- Partly supportedcites Oksuzyan et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Depression) and Discussion describe variation by country and age, including a slight reversal in Japan that was not statistically significant. But the paper studies middle and older ages, not adulthood broadly, and its Discussion says the literature generally finds higher depression prevalence in women from young adulthood through early old age. It does not support characterizing the limited findings across adulthood as inconsistent in direction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Barnes et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section (‘Tests of interaction in NESARC data’; page unavailable) reports a non-significant race × sex interaction (P = 0.89), consistent with no detected Black–White variation in the sex difference in lifetime major depression. The study tests Black and White respondents, not ethnicity broadly, and says it lacked sufficient power to test the interaction for 12-month depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Oquendo et al., 2001 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This absence of any substantial effect for nation-level wealth is consistent with other research (Bromet et al., 2011) indicating that economic development is not a major factor in cross-national variations in the magnitude of gender differences in depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) report that the association between gender and major depressive episode did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). This supports the claim as an interpretation of the paper's income-group comparison, rather than proof that economic development has no effect. (LLM, conf=0.90)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13–15, and d = 0.47 for age 16)”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Age was the strongest predictor of effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 72
- It may state two separate claims as one. 101
- Borderline: one of the tests for a substantial claim is unclear. 1
- Not yet classified. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A study including 18 countries from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys (Kessler & Usten, 2008) reported that the relationship between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) analyze 12-month MDE across 18 countries and explicitly report that the association between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, findings also suggest that the 2:1 ratio is not universal and may vary substantially across nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors; page unavailable) report that women were twice as likely as men to have a major depressive episode on average, but country-specific odds ratios varied. The difference was not statistically significant in three of the 18 countries, supporting the hedged claim that the 2:1 ratio is not universal. (LLM, conf=0.91)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the vast majority of epidemiological reports on adults, women have higher rates of major depression compared to men; on average, the ratio is 2:1”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrade et al., 2003 source
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Background states that almost all studies find an association between gender and depression and that women have a twofold increased risk of major depressive episode. The Results (Sociodemographic factors) likewise report that women were, on average, twice as likely as men to have an episode across the countries studied. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Other widely held beliefs about gender differences, such as the gender difference in math performance, have sometimes been found to be inaccurate when the data are meta-analyzed”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Lindberg et al., 2010 source
The Abstract reports that a meta-analysis of 242 studies found no overall gender difference in mathematics performance (d = .05). The Gender and Mathematics Performance section says stereotypes of female inferiority contrast with the performance data, supporting the claim that meta-analysis has found this widely held belief inaccurate. (LLM, conf=0.93)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“there is increased recognition of the validity (e.g., Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011) and value (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) of dimensional assessments, as well as the impairment associated with sub-threshold levels of symptoms that do not meet diagnostic criteria.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Markon et al., 2011 source
- Supportedcites Cuthbert & Insel, 2013 source
The citation is attached specifically to the value of dimensional assessments, not to their validity or the separate statement about impairment from sub-threshold symptoms. In “The seven pillars,” the paper endorses a dimensional approach and explains its value for studying mild psychopathology and informing intervention cut-points. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007 source
- Partly supportedcites Van de Velde et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports the conflicting finding that Hopcroft and Bradley found a larger depression gender gap in high-equality countries, while this paper's results were more consistent with equality reducing women's disadvantage. But the Results say the overall interaction between gender and equality was not significant; a smaller gap at higher equality appeared only in certain subgroups and for certain measures. The sentence overstates this paper's finding as a general cross-country result. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Seedat and colleagues (2009) found a significant narrowing in the gender difference in depression in recent cohorts.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Seedat et al., 2009 source
The Abstract states that gender differences narrowed significantly in recent cohorts for major depressive disorder. The COMMENT section likewise reports significantly smaller gender differences in major depression in more recent cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One latent growth curve analysis indicated that girls’ depression symptoms accelerated early in adolescence and then leveled off, whereas boys’ symptom levels accelerated in late adolescence (Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016), consistent with the first possibility above.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016 source
The Results section’s latent growth curve analysis says girls’ depression scores increased and then leveled off, while boys’ scores were initially low and increased more rapidly at later ages. The Discussion likewise describes girls’ symptoms accelerating early in adolescence and boys’ symptoms accelerating later. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“On the face of it, greater contraceptive prevalence should indicate women’s greater control over reproduction and a lower rate of unwanted pregnancies, which are a risk factor for depression (e.g., Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (Main Findings) reports that women with unwanted pregnancies had a higher risk of postpartum depression than women with intended pregnancies. The claim says “depression” without limiting it to the postpartum period; the paper also cautions in the Discussion (Interpretation) that it cannot establish a causal relationship. The contraceptive-prevalence premise appears to be the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, U.S. ethnicity did not account for significant variation in effect size (see Table 4).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
Borderline substantial claim. It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it. It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plainn = 1,922,064- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but then declined and remained stable in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plainn = 1,716,195- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 112 articles from the original search met criteria for inclusion, including articles for which authors needed to be contacted for data. We added 46 new articles that were not in the original search from additional searching for nationally representative datasets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up testing with pairs of consecutive age groups indicated that the effect sizes for ages 8–12 (0.09), 13–15 (0.35), and 16–19 (0.41) were statistically different (QB = 23.01 and QB = 8.06, ps< .01, respectively), such that the effect size for each consecutively age group was significantly larger than the previous age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The depression symptom meta-analysis covers data collected from 1978–2014 whereas the major depression meta-analysis only includes data collected from 1991–2014.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from OR = 1.71 to OR = 3.02, with ORs >2.0 during adolescence and ORs between 1.71 and 2.02 in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the major depression meta-analysis, all articles reported DSM major depression diagnoses or episodes (96%) or the roughly equivalent ICD-10 depressive episode (4%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.07.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the youngest age group available for these analyses was 12 years old, making it impossible to observe the emergence of the gender difference from childhood to adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when outliers were removed, the effect became marginally significant (QB = 3.09, p = 0.08) with smaller gender differences in high-income nations (d = 0.26) compared to low- to middle- income nations (d = 0.29).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.02.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the LRT showed a marginal effect for the major depression meta-analysis, the weighted average from the unadjusted model (logged OR = 0.67) and the adjusted model (logged OR = 0.62) were quite similar.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1991 to 2016 and yielded data from 1978–2014 collected from 53 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“utilized data comprising 180 samples, 413 effect sizes, and 1,922,064 people (52% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plainn = 1,922,064- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They both include mostly high-income countries and cover the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The OR at ages 16–19 (2.69) was significantly larger than the OR for ages 20–29 (1.93), QB = 43.19, p < .001, indicating a significant decrease in the gender difference from adolescence to the 20s.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Removal of outliers did not change the estimates of effect sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The likelihood ratio tests (LRT) comparing the unadjusted to adjusted models (using p-value cut points of 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001) for the major depression and depression symptom meta-analyses, respectively, were not statistically significant, p = 0.073 and p = 0.3226.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was not a range restriction for the literacy variable (ratios ranged from .31 to 1.07), which can have substantial negative skew (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence and literacy ratio both predicted variability in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, they differ in terms of the distribution of nations and year of data collection.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the symptom meta-analysis, most effect sizes were based on the C ES-D measure.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in follow-up analyses, effect sizes from articles that focused on gender were not significantly different than effect sizes from articles that focused on depression (QB = 2.22, p = 0.14) or something other than gender or depression (QB = 0.91, p =0.34).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1993 to 2016 with data from 1991–2014 collected in 75 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“provided data comprising 149 samples (this number includes different countries from the same international dataset as well as different years of data collection for cross-sectional national datasets), 300 effect sizes (this number includes separate effect sizes for different age groups and ethnicities), and 1,716,195 people (53% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plainn = 1,716,195- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vast majority of effect sizes for the major depression meta-analysis were 12-month major depressive episodes based on the DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR using a version of the CIDI.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When outliers were excluded, the age 13–15 OR decreased from 3.02 to 2.92 and the age 70+ OR increased from 2.02 to 2.20.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the depression symptom meta-analysis includes the most effect sizes from Europe (53%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from d = 0.09 to d = 0.41, peaking at ages 16–19, declining in the 20s, and staying relatively stable at roughly d = 0.20 after that.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The final sample of studies (see Figure 1) for the meta-analyses included data from 65 (diagnosis meta-analysis) and 95 (symptom meta-analysis) articles and their corresponding data sets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Income inequality was a significant predictor of effect size, such that larger gender differences were reported in nations with low levels of income inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 4, manual for major depression (e.g., DSM-IV, ICD-10), type of depression (episode versus disorder) and depression time span (1 month, 6 months, 12 months, and lifetime) did not predict effect size variation.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both meta-analyses, the effect size peaked in adolescence but then declined and remained stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
“Our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms peaks in adolescence, with the gender gap in diagnoses emerging earlier than previously thought (OR = 2.37 at age 12). The gender gap then narrows and remains stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously and has important implications for both theory and”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, the gender difference declined in early adulthood and then remained relatively stable, hovering between OR = 1.71 – 2.02 and d = 0.19 – 0.30.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Expressed in the Cohen’s d metric, the two effect sizes are similar: d = 0.37 for major depression and d = 0.27 for depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds ratio for the 13–15 age group in our meta-analysis was already 3.02 and declined, not widened, to OR = 2.69 for ages 16–19.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To better understand this pattern, we created a categorical variable for year of data collection and obtained the following effect size estimates: 1991–1996= 1.84, k = 22; 1997–2002= 1.88, k = 134; 2003–2008= 1.91, k = 59; 2009–2014 = 2.17, k = 85.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the major depression meta-analysis, we could not examine the emergence of the gender difference given that the youngest age in the studies was 12, when the OR was already 2.37.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, among different subgroups, all odds ratios for diagnoses were > 1.0, and all effect sizes for symptoms were positive.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence, executive positions, and the literacy ratio did not predict variation in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow up analyses, excluding outliers, indicated that diagnoses using the ICD were significantly smaller than both diagnoses using DSM-IV/DSM-IV-TR (QB = 6.86, p < .01) and DSM-III/ DSM- III-R TR (QB = 9.60, p < .01).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the symptom meta-analysis, the gender difference emerged in adolescence with a trivial gender difference for ages 8–11 (see Figure 3) and then a steep increase, reaching a peak in the gender difference at age 16.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In follow-up tests, all pair-wise comparisons were significantly different from each other, such that the smallest effect size was for the BDI (d = 0.20) and the largest effect size was for scales other than the BDI and CES-D (d = 0.31).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was no relation to the gender effect size for diagnoses; it was negatively related for symptom measures but lost significance when outliers were excluded.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both the diagnosis and symptom meta-analyses, differences among ethnic groups were not significant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The symptom meta-analysis found no significant trend over time and the diagnosis meta-analysis found a positive trend, meaning that gender differences are growing larger.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings of larger gender differences in nations with greater gender equity did not replicate with the meta-analysis of depression symptoms, suggesting that caution is needed in interpreting the findings for diagnoses.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it was limited to the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) scale and samples of 8- to 16-year-old participants in the United States and Canada (n = 43,916).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not matchedcites Kovacs, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainn = 43,916- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The theory predicts that larger gender differences should be observed in nations with more gender inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the theory, a society’s division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Theories of developmental psychopathology contend that there are multiple pathways to the gender difference in depression involving combinations and interactions of risk factors that span multiple levels of analysis”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“there is no gender difference or even a somewhat higher prevalence of depression among boys than girls in childhood”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Avenevoli et al., 2008
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To the extent that women report higher rates of violent victimization, this may contribute to the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Koss et al., 1994 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“gender inequality is linked to discrimination against women, which may contribute to the gender difference”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Belle & Doucet, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theories highlight how specific vulnerability factors come on-line at critical developmental periods in adolescence and/or interact with stressors in adolescence to produce the gender difference in adolescence”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents and adults with subthreshold depression symptoms and minor depression still experience significant impairment (e.g., Lewinsohn, Solomon, Seeley, & Zeiss, 2000) and are at elevated risk for later development of major depression and suicidal behaviors”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The extant literature indicates that the prevalence of major depression in the United States varies both by gender and by ethnicity”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“One recent narrative review concluded that internalizing problems for girls increased from the late 20th century to the 21st century”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bor et al., 2014 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“we follow MARS reporting standards”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites American Psychological Association Publications and Communications Board, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If a particular sample of participants was used in more than one article, which was often the case with these national datasets, to maintain independence of samples, we selected the article that had the most complete data (including information on moderator variables such as age and ethnicity) and/or the largest sample size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For nationally representative longitudinal studies with multiple waves of data (e.g., Add Health), we included only one wave of data to maintain independence of samples.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“type of depression diagnosis (depressive episode versus depressive disorder), κ = .87; and (4) the time span for the depression diagnosis (current, 1 month, 6 months, 12 months, lifetime), κ = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, all datasets were nationally representative, indicating that any bias in sampling is minimized.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression diagnoses, we received data from authors for 24 (37%) of the 65 articles, such that 167 (56%) of the 300 effect sizes were based on obtained rather than published data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although they were theoretically interesting, the intimate-partner violence and sexism ideals measures proved unsatisfactory because they were available for only a minority of the effect sizes in analyses. Those two measures are therefore not considered further.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Gender Equity Indicators
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data were entered in the calculator by two individuals to ensure accuracy.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we coded the focus of the article (gender, depression, other), κ = .84.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They argued that the strongest scientific evidence about gender differences does not come from small studies of convenience samples, but instead comes from larger studies based on representative samples of populations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Nowell, 1995 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We included abstracts that explicitly mentioned “nationally representative.””
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the type of measure used to assess depression diagnoses (diagnostic interview; e.g., CIDI, DIS) or depression symptoms (self-report measure; e.g., CES-D, BDI), κ = 1.0; (2) the manual used to diagnose depression (DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR5; DSM-III or DSM-III-R; or ICD-10), κ = 1.0”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression symptoms, we received data from authors for 71 (75%) of the 95 articles, such that 357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“age of the participants (measured on a continuous scale, using the reported mean or the midpoint of the age range), r = .99”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“country, κ (kappa) = 1.00”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“predominant (≥ 85%) ethnic group of participants (Caucasian, African American, Asian American, Hispanic, Native American, other, mixed, or unreported), κ = 1.00; and (d) year of data collection, r = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
In the paper
“a meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem found a small difference favoring Caucasian males over Caucasian females, d = 0.20, but no gender difference for African American samples, d = −0.04”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kling et al., 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all authors of the study for whom we could find email addresses from the article, the Web directory of the authors’ academic institution, or a Google search, were contacted.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded if their measurement of depression symptoms did not meet the following criteria: 1) minimum of 3 items; 2) self-report; 3) Cronbach’s alpha ≥.70 (if provided); and 4) valid and reliable measure of depression based on previously published research”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we excluded studies that were not based on national probability sampling. In other words, we included only population-based surveys representative of the country.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We double coded 30 studies to compute interrater agreement.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each of the economic and gender equity indicators, data are not available for all nations. Therefore, sample sizes vary in regression analyses, depending on the indicator.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Economic Indicators
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Raw effect sizes were corrected for bias (i.e., the upward-bias of effect sizes among small samples; Hedges, 1981); however, most correction factors were close to 1.0 given the large sample sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges, 1981 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that most studies were published on the basis of the work on depression and not on the basis of a gender difference, so publication bias in the direction of gender differences should not be a problem.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded in the processing of articles if their measurement of depression diagnoses did not include a diagnostic interview with the participant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All analyses were run with the full data set and then re-run excluding outliers.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Data-Analytic Plan
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is that stressors attached to these transitions are spread out more evenly across adulthood, leading to more even rates of depression across age for both women and men, and a stable gender gap.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the range of OR = 1.84 to 2.17 is not great, the positive relationship is clear.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in depression emerges earlier than previously thought (by at least age 12 for diagnoses, at age 12 for symptoms), which has important implications for the timing of preventive interventions.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These results differ from those of Hankin and colleagues (1998), who found that that the gender gap in major depression emerged between ages 13 and 15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hankin and colleagues (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern is a new finding and should be robust because it is based on large-scale meta-analyses and was consistent across both diagnosis and symptom measures.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, individuals who are high in negative affectivity and low on positive affectivity are vulnerable to later depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to this model, the gender difference in depression in adolescence may be accounted for by (a) higher levels of negative cognitive style in girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; (b) higher levels of stress for girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; or (c) both.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This emphasizes the consistency with which females have higher levels major depression and depression symptoms than males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, early puberty is disadvantageous for girls but not boys, for outcomes such as depression (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference in findings may be due to the greater recency of many of our studies, the greater number of nations, or the inclusion of multiple measures of depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A third possibility results from the observation that depression is a recurrent disorder (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Men may be less likely to develop depression than women; however, this does not mean that depressed men are not distressed and impaired.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, gender equity measures were missing for some nations; thus, the analyses did not capture patterns among all nations included.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, temperament, present from infancy and early childhood, predicts later depression (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in the 21st century women constitute 47% of the U.S. labor force, compared to 30% in 1950 (Costello et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Costello et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Research suggests that negative cognitive style may not emerge as a stable trait until ages 9.5 to 12.5, and the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction does not become a reliable predictor of depression until ages 13.5 to 14.5, i.e., in early adolescence (Cole et al., 2008).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole et al., 2008 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the gender difference in depression is created at least in part by girls who go through puberty early, because of any of several processes, such as early-puberty girls encountering more peer sexual harassment than boys and on-time girls (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, the typical assessment of symptoms often represents a short period of time, such as a week, whereas diagnoses involve aggregation over longer periods, often a year (Haeffel et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haeffel et al., 2003 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As such, it may be that most first cases of depression occur in adolescence, and then recur at variable times in adulthood, as a result of the uneven timing of major stressors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted earlier, theories guided by developmental psychopathology have focused on explaining the emergence of the gender difference in adolescence (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b), but did not attend to development across adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An OR of 1.95 is a medium, not a large, effect size, yet it is still a health disparity.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another theoretical account rests on cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression, which have been well supported in samples of college students and adults (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, prevalence would remain stable across adulthood for both women and men, leading to a stable gender gap, created by the original gender gap in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given that depression is a global health priority (World Health Organization, 2016), it is imperative to understand disparities in depression and which subgroups are most in need of services.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites World Health Organization, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, assuming equal numbers of males and females, an OR = 2.0 can result from a 9.05% prevalence in females and a 4.85% prevalence in males, or from an 18% prevalence in females and a 10.1% prevalence in males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results indicated high agreement between the two; for major depressive disorder, kappa = 0.97, with 99.7% agreement between the two sources (see also Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also made extensive efforts to obtain data for as many national data sets as possible by conducting additional computerized searches and contacting authors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, mounting a study based on a nationally representative sample is a major, costly undertaking that should almost certainly result in multiple publications, at least one of them in English, so we should have detected such studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, perhaps counterintuitively, gender differences were larger in nations with more gender equity, a finding that was consistent across three indicators.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, focusing on large, nationally representative datasets meant that the diagnostic interviews for major depression were conducted not by skilled clinicians, but instead by trained lay interviewers, as is standard practice in these large-scale, epidemiological studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, both diagnostic measures and symptom questionnaire measures rely on self-reports from participants.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Guimond and colleagues (2007) proposed that gender differences in self-construals are larger in contexts in which individuals make intergroup social comparisons, e.g., when they compare themselves to an out-group such as the other gender.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Guimond and colleagues (2007)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that women are at significantly greater risk of depression diagnoses and symptoms compared to men worldwide, and that adolescent girls are at the greatest risk.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is precisely in higher gender-equity nations, where males and females interact more (e.g., girls are more literate because they have more equal access to schooling with boys), that intergroup comparisons are likelier, leading to larger gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourth, our database search included only articles in English.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses, however, were based on small numbers of studies. Therefore, power to detect ethnic-group differences was limited.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In low-gender-equity nations, intergroup interactions are often greatly restricted, and gender differences on a variable such as depression are smaller due to mostly intragroup comparisons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, we did not have sufficient data to examine gender differences in major depression for children younger than age 12 (and we had only 2 samples for age 12), even though the minimum age criterion was 7.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plainn = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If there are gender differences in willingness to disclose symptoms, then the resulting data may be biased.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the difference between these odds ratios is small, and the 95% confidence intervals overlap, suggesting that this difference is not a major effect.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One early review concluded that the gender difference in depression is a real difference and not a measurement artifact (Weissman & Klerman, 1977).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Weissman & Klerman, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that this did not lead to the omission of nations in which English is not the predominant language for two reasons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The emphasis on adolescents is particularly important because depression is a recurring disorder, so an episode in adolescence can predispose the individual to later episodes (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in depression represents a major health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in males should not be overlooked.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Conclusions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Not yet classified.
The paper relies on this without support.
The existing literature on gender differences in depression had not been meta-analytically synthesized before this study.
“this large body of sometimes inconsistent research has yet to be synthesized meta-analytically.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
“We selected domain-specific indicators of gender equity (rather than composite indicators) that should, theoretically, be tied to gender differences in depression”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mixed-effects model used for moderator analyses assumes that variability among effect sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (error variance).
“The mixed-effects model assumes that variability among effects sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (i.e., error variance).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
“For major depression diagnoses, variability in the gender difference in depression was linked to measures of national wealth and gender equity.”
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In the citing paper
“Women are more likely than males to experience recurring MDD 445 and are twice as likely to experience MDD throughout their lifetimes. 446”
From Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment (2024) · cites this paper as [446]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“and the risk of certain mental health problems such as depression, self-harm, and eating disorders is higher in adolescent females than in males27.”
From Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media (2022) · cites this paper as [27]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Considering studies from only the old analyses, we found that females have more symptoms, diagnoses, or feelings of depression in countries with higher living conditions (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As has often been reported, females have in most studies been found to have higher rates of Depression (SMDs = 0.19–0.38; Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Given the well-established associations of sex and sedentary screen time with depression symptoms, 43,44”
From Associations of time spent on homework or studying with nocturnal sleep behavior and depression symptoms in adolescents from Singapore (2020) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Even in clinical trials, there is a variability in how the different levels of severity of depression are defined. 66,67”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“Adolescence is a period of significant vulnerability to the emergence of mental health disorders.(1) In particular, it is a critical window for the emergence of internalizing (i.e., mood and anxiety) disorders, especially in girls.(2,3)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses show that during adolescence, girls’ risk for depression rises to double or more than that of boys -- a disparity in both symptoms and diagnoses that peaks in mid-late adolescence, and persists across most of the remaining lifespan (for a recent multinational meta-analysis, see (2)).”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Layered atop these well-known developmental trajectories, a series of new findings indicate that rates of these adolescent-emergent mental health problems (depressive and anxiety disorders, NSSI, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors) have been increasing worldwide -- especially over the past decade, and most notably amongst girls.(2,20–23)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“It should also be highlighted that the relationship between age and the prevalence of depressive symptoms might vary depending on depression severity (Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“The mild depressive symptoms category is under the cut-off value (10+) consistently proposed to determine the presence of depression using the PHQ-8 and, therefore, could be indicative of subclinical depression or depressive mood (Levis et al., 2019;Moriarty et al., 2015;Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
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- Consistentt(299) = 1961.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(299) = 1961.63, p < .001”
- Consistentt(412) = 9542.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(412) = 9542.50, p < .001”
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In the paper
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
“357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
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Items 1,601–1,700 of 2,611
Napp, C. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0330766 · Cited by 5
Sleep debt and depressive symptoms among workers: the mediating role of fatigue
Omichi, C., Sumi, Y., Okajima, I., Ozeki, Y., Ishii, K., Mori, T., Tsovoosed, U., & Kadotani, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1783461 · Cited by 2
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Robust but independent sex differences in human brain function, structure, and behavior
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A Gendered Light on Empathy, Prosocial Behavior, and Forgiveness
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Research on Classification Model of BP Neural Network Based on DL Algorithm
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Godfrey, C. J., Meyer, T. D., Boster, K., Vujanovic, A. A., & Schmitz, J. M. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00713-w · Cited by 2
“Because of associations between age, gender, recent alcohol use, recent and lifetime cannabis use, especially with depression but also current cocaine use (e.g., John & Wu, 2017; Lister et al., 2015; Masumoto et al., 2016; Orgeta, 2009; Petkus et al., 2017; Salk et al., 2017), we controlled for these in each of the th…”
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Population frequency and risk factors for depression in Eastern Ukraine
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“b PHQ-9 score range for the different degrees of depression severity: none or minimal (0-4), mild (5-9), moderate (10-14), moderately severe (15-19), severe (20-27).”
BackgroundMahani, F., Mehrabi, F., Cheraghi, L., Zareie-Shabkhaneh, A., Azizi, F., & Amiri, P. (2022) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3208 · Cited by 2
Major Depressive Disorder and Gender Differences
Zhu, Q. (2023) · doi:10.2991/978-2-494069-97-8_199 · Cited by 4
Differences in biobehavioral measures of cigarette smoking by depression symptomology
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Álvarez, P., Bellosillo, B., Colom, F., Longarón, R., Barrera-Conde, M., Fernández‐Ibarrondo, L., Toll, A., Gines, J. M., de la Torre, R., Pérez, V., et al. (2023) · Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/s11010-023-04807-y · Cited by 2
“ON cell exfoliation and culture was performed following the method described by Guinart et al. [9].”
Depression and Psychological Distress
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Frequency of Depression among Patients with Parkinson Disease
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Diet and Depression during Peri- and Post-Menopause: A Scoping Review Protocol
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“As is consistent with estrogen’s neuroendocrine functions, sex-related differences in the prevalence of depression become apparent starting at puberty [16].”
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“A previously-published meta-analysis revealed that depression in males should not be overlooked in the general population [52].”
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“These findings are consistent with what is commonly reported in the literature (Argyriou et al., 2021; Chaudhry & Reisner, 2019; Dunlop et al., 2020; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2010; Ross et al., 2018; Salk et al., 2017; Tabaac et al., 2015; Wittgens et al., 2022).”
BackgroundResultSullivan, A. J., Chung, Y. S., Novotny, S. E., Epperson, C. N., Hedy Kober, A., Blumberg, H. P., Gross, J. J., Ochsner, K. N., Pearlson, G. D., & Stevens, M. C. G. (2023) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105450 · Cited by 3
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“There was substantial evidence to suggest that sex differences exist in both the prevalence and the clinical manifestations of MDD [9, 10].”
Vitamin D levels and depression in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: a cross-sectional study
Putranto, R., Adhiatma, K., Tarigan, T. J. E., Rumende, C. M., Shatri, H., Rengganis, I., Nugroho, P., & Rinaldi, I. (2023) · Medical Journal of Indonesia · doi:10.13181/mji.oa.237005 · Cited by 2
“The depression group comprised females predominantly, which is consistent with the study of Salk et al, 22 in which a 3 times higher risk of depression was observed in females than in males, particularly in the teenage age group (12–16 years old).”
ResultKridli, N., Sturza, J. S., & Michniacki, T. F. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1007/s10875-024-01652-6 · Cited by 2
“In concordance with the responses of adult participants of our study, prior research has shown that females have a higher rate of depression than males in the general population [18].”
Wardenaar, K. J., Jörg, F., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.031 · Cited by 3
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Kim, A. J., Sherry, S., Mackinnon, S. P., Lee‐Baggley, D., Wang, G. A., Stewart, S. H., Antony, M. M., & Hahn, C. (2024) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2024.43.2.180 · Cited by 3
Country Differences in the Effects of Individual Traits on Depression in Women in Europe
Donate, M. C. R., Nieto-González, I. L., & Pérez, G. G. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01289-x · Cited by 2
“Some studies suggest that nations with greater gender equity are more prone to show larger psychological gender differences, in addition to ethnicity or the need for monitoring for possible changes going forward (Salk et al., 2017).”
Amiot, O., Sauvaget, A., Alamome, I., Bulteau, S., Charpeaud, T., Clair, A.-H., Courtet, P., Drapier, D., Haffen, É., Fakra, É., et al. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/53204 · Cited by 2
“Women were more likely than men to refuse treatment for financial reasons, raising questions about the impact of gender differences on depression [21].”
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“Female patients with depression often display more severe symptoms, experience longer or recurrent depression, exhibit an earlier age of onset, and have a lower quality of life compared to male patients (Kornstein et al. 2000; Sramek et al. 2016; Salk et al. 2017).”
Ahmadi, N., Dratva, M. A., Heyworth, N. C., Wang, X., Blennow, K., Banks, S. J., & Sudermann, E. E. (2024) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.1177/00914150241253257 · Cited by 2
“developing mood disorders (Seney & Sibille, 2014), particularly depression (Salk et al., 2017), and have shown differences in how depressive symptoms relate to AD-related outcomes compared to men (Sachdev et al., 2012; Sundermann, Biegon, et al., 2017a; Sundermann, Katz, & Lipton, 2017b).”
Scoping Review of the Relationship between Salivary Cortisol and Depression
Saghiri, M. A., Desai, D., Vakhnovetsky, J., & Samadi, E. (2023) · Advances in Human Biology · doi:10.4103/aihb.aihb_217_22 · Cited by 2
Burden and Predictors of Depression in Populations With Coronary Heart Disease
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“This supports reports from previous studies of the association between the female sex and severe depression [21,22].”
ResultNADPH mimics the antidepressant effects of exercise in a chronic unpredictable stress rat model
Pan, S.-Y., Gu, Y.-R., Zhao, G., Wang, Y., Qin, Z., Tang, Q.-Y., Qin, Y., & Luo, L. (2024) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150360 · Cited by 2
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“…between youth’s antisocial behavior and depression outcomes, as antisocial behavior is more frequent and typically more socially acceptable among boys (Cillessen & Malleux, 2004), whereas– starting at the end of middle childhood– depression levels are generally higher in girls (Salk et al., 2017).”
Brito, A. I. D. C., Neto, J. N., Mendes, A. B. C., Nogueira, M. B., Gomes, L. M. R. D. S., Leal, P. D. C., & Moura, E. C. R. (2024) · Women & Health · doi:10.1080/03630242.2024.2395480 · Cited by 2
“In the global population, the prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress is 25.25 percent, 32.10 percent and 16.27 percent, respectively (Mahmud et al. 2021; Salk, Hyde, and Abramson 2017).”
InfluentialAdamgbe, M. A., Okpanachi, J., Misbah, N. Z., Uzochukwu, C. F., Dhikirullah, Y., Aboki, E. A., & Ogbaji, F. (2023) · Nigerian Journal of Medicine · doi:10.4103/njm.njm_129_23 · Cited by 2
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Why we need a stronger focus on women’s health in clinical psychology and psychological treatment
Weise, C., & Gross, C. H. (2024) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.15683 · Cited by 4
“This is often due to a lack of awareness of the psychological impacts of their physical symptoms, or the fear that their distress will be dismissed (Salk et al., 2017).”
Lopez, D. E. M., Sherwin, E. B., Martijena, C. Q., Liu, Y., & Magis‐Weinberg, L. (2024) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.08.012 · Cited by 2
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65 Yaş ve Üzeri Bireylerde Depresyon Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi
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“Boys typically use more screen media than girls (Rideout et al., 2022), whereas adolescent girls report higher depressive symptoms compared to boys (see Salk et al., 2017), and so we also controlled for gender.”
Xiang, N., Bai, J., Li, W., Ge, Y., & Deng, Z. (2025) · Heart & Lung · doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2025.01.004 · Cited by 2
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“49,50 One possible reason for males’ lower rates of depressive symptoms might be normative male alexithymia (NMA), which refers to men’s deficit in recognizing and articulating their feelings.”
Saleem, F. T., Christophe, N. K., Anyiwo, N., Bernard, D. L., Jones, S. C. T., Anderson, R. E., Stein, G. L., & Kiang, L. (2025) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.13095 · Cited by 5
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“Various studies have proven that women are twice as depressed as men [2].”
Sympathetic reactivity to emotional stress in women with major depressive disorder
Autler, A. S., Darling, A. M., Skow, R. J., Young, B. E., Fadel, P. J., Saunders, E. F. H., & Greaney, J. L. (2025) · Autonomic Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2025.103257 · Cited by 2
The genetic association between major depressive disorder and coronary heart disease
Shi, Y., Xu, F.-K., Wei, Y.-M., Zeng, D., He, S., Huang, J., & Li, H.-F. (2025) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2024.40 · Cited by 3
“More than 300 million people suffer from MDD, which is about 4.4 percent of the global population, and the incidence is twice as high in women as in men (Salk et al ., 2017, Parker and Brotchie, 2010).”
InfluentialOhishi, K., Rahman, A., Ohkura, T., Burns, A. J., Goldstein, A. M., & Hotta, R. (2025) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2025.12853 · Cited by 2
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Depression symptoms among University Students in the Khulna region of Bangladesh
Rahman, H., Tohan, M. M., Easha, A. A., & Fatema, N. (2025) · PLOS mental health. · doi:10.1371/journal.pmen.0000158 · Cited by 2
“The results showed that there is a statistically significant relationship between gender and depression, and our study also demonstrated that both males and females experience different levels of depression [52,53].”
Ruan, L., Zhang, Y., Sheng, Y., Wu, B., Yu, H. M., Huang, Z., Jiang, H., Zhang, X., & Tang, D. (2025) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1093/jsxmed/qdaf070 · Cited by 3
Streur, M. M., Auld, J. P., Chang, W., Choupani, F., Zheng, T., Frazier, E., Liberato, A. C. S., Pike, K. C., Thompson, E. A., & Dougherty, C. M. (2025) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.124.039238 · Cited by 2
“In a meta-analysis of a nationally representative sample, Salk et al 49 found that women consistently reported higher levels of major depression and depression symptoms (OR, 1.95).”
InfluentialLevy, M., Berger, A., Egotubov, A., Gordon‐Hacker, A., Sheiner, E., & Gueron‐Sela, N. (2025) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-025-01332-y · Cited by 2
“Additionally, child sex was controlled to account for potential sex differences in depressive symp - toms and focused attention in children (Salk et al., 2017 ).”
Sampogna, G., Brugnoli, R., Didato, G., Elia, M., Ferlazzo, E., Serafini, G., Vatti, G., Volpe, U., Villani, F., & Sani, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1592650 · Cited by 2
“The 12-month and lifetime prevalence is of 13.4% and 26.1%, respectively, with the female population reporting a higher incidence compared to male population (14.7% vs. 7.2%, respectively) (Fischer et al., 2023; Salk et al., 2017).”
InfluentialTerminal Increases in Depressive Symptoms in a Multinational Twin Consortium
Petkus, A. J., Reynolds, C. A., Catts, V. S., Christensen, K., Finkel, D., Nygaard, M., Sachdev, P. S., Pedersen, N. L., & Gatz, M. (2025) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976251351022 · Cited by 2
“At most ages, women tend to report more depressive symptoms than men (Salk et al., 2017).”
Jiang, S., Jin, C., Du, R., & Liang, Z. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120207 · Cited by 3
Laaksonen, M., Rantala, J., Liukko, J., et al. (2019) · Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation · doi:10.1007/s10926-019-09869-8 · Cited by 2
Gender and Personality Research in Psychology
Laher, S., Cheung, F. M., & Zeinoun, P. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.016 · Cited by 3
Shen, W. (2022) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2022.100725 · Cited by 3
Silverstein, B. (2017) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-017-0130-8 · Cited by 2
Intercultural Relationships, Migrant Women, and Intersection of Identities
Kashima, E. S., & Safdar, S. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.036 · Cited by 2
Feminist Theory and Methodologies
Pande, R., Liu, W., & Tseng, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.003 · Cited by 2
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Depression, and the Role of Celecoxib
Al-Baz, N., & Karim, M. A. (2020) · SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1007/s42399-020-00468-w · Cited by 2
González, A., & Frey, B. N. (2020) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1336 · Cited by 2
Brown, M. J., & Roman, N. V. (2020) · Nutrition and Health · doi:10.1177/0260106020977053 · Cited by 2
“However, these nutrition-related health problems are now common in children due to obesity (Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPsychosocial Risk Factors for Depression Among Married Muslim Mothers in Malaysia
Kadir, N. B. A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00452-4 · Cited by 2
“For instance, studies have shown that women are more vulnerable to experiencing depression than that of men (Girgus and Yang 2015; Salk et al. 2017) particularly among single mothers (Abdul Kadir and Bifulco 2011).”
BackgroundSex-specific Changes in Brain Estrogen Metabolism Induced by Acute Trimethyltin Exposure
LEE, J. H., Cho, S., JANG, E. H., & Kim, S. A. (2021) · In Vivo · doi:10.21873/invivo.12319 · Cited by 2
Rotter, I., Wiatrak, A., Rył, A., Kotfis, K., Sipak‐Szmigiel, O., Ptak, M., Tomska, N., & Szylińska, A. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11030196 · Cited by 2
“Additionally, there are unfavorable stereotypes that disregard and depress the problem of depressive disorders in men [25].”
BackgroundGender heterogeneity in self-reported hypertension
Bonsang, É., Caroli, È., & Garrouste, C. (2021) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101071 · Cited by 2
Bächle, C., Stahl‐Pehe, A., Castillo, K., Lange, K., Holl, R. W., & Rosenbauer, J. (2022) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.109220 · Cited by 2
The association between urinary phytoestrogens and depressive symptoms
Cui, K., Luo, J., Zhang, L., Zhang, T., Feng, Z., & Zhang, D. (2022) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2022.2031913 · Cited by 2
“…however, no association was found between the different types of urinary phytoestrogens and depressive symptoms in men, which may be due to the weak oestrogen effect of phytoestrogens, or there may be gender differences in the prevalence of depressive symptoms (Humfrey 1998; Salk et al. 2017).”
BackgroundHong, H., Kang, S., Kim, J., Gong, J.-Y., & Kang, H. (2022) · Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.31083/j.jomh1803067 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, MDD is the leading cause of disability globally in women [2], implying a gender-based health disparity for this mental illness [5].”
BackgroundNagarkar, R. V., Patil, R., Gadade, K., Paleja, N., & Ramesh, Y. V. (2022) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2022.164 · Cited by 2
“In our study, we found more anxiety and depressive symptoms in female staff which was consistent with previously published reports, where females are at higher risk of anxiety compared to males in developing GAD and depression (Alharthy et al. 2017, Salk et al. 2017).”
BackgroundMethodResultThe use of occupation based interventions among certified hand therapists
Colaianni, D., Skuthan, A., Coscomb, B., Nost, L., Schray, A., Hahn, A., Frank, J., & Wynn, S. (2022) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-205321 · Cited by 2
Han, D. Y., Williams, M., Karr, J. E., Day, A. M., Glueck, A. C., Kapoor, S., & Han, D. Y. (2022) · Neurology and Neurobiology · doi:10.31487/j.nnb.2022.02.04 · Cited by 2
“Additionally, girls are at greater risk for depression and anxiety during adolescence compared to boys [19, 20].”
BackgroundDepression, anxiety, and insomnia among Peruvian university students during the COVID-19 pandemic
Morales, J., Basilio-Rojas, M. R., Canchaya, G. S., Torres-Malca, J. R., Lindo-Cano, E. F., & García-Monge, V. A. (2022) · International Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.53730/ijhs.v6ns4.10714 · Cited by 2
“The PHQ-9 is a valid instrument to be applied in Peru (18)(19) .”
Sherwani, S., & Khan, M. W. A. (2022) · Revista română de medicină de laborator · doi:10.2478/rrlm-2022-0039 · Cited by 2
Busch, J., Bleckmann, C., Schettgen, L., Krey, E., & Siefen, R. G. (2023) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/10634266221149361 · Cited by 4
“Girls are more likely to develop symptoms of depression and anxiety than boys and the gender gap widens with increasing age (McLean et al., 2011; Salk et al., 2017).”
Longitudinal dynamics of depression in risk groups of older individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic
Dankowski, T., Kastner, L., Suenkel, U., von Thaler, A., Mychajliw, C., Krawczak, M., Maetzler, W., Berg, D., Brockmann, K., Thiel, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Epidemiology · doi:10.3389/fepid.2023.1093780 · Cited by 2
“Age and gender were also considered as additional variables in the present study, since many empirical studies have shown that these are significant factors influencing depression (27, 28).”
Resultde Beurs, E., Jadnanansing, R., Etwaroo, K., Blankers, M., Bipat, R., Peen, J., & Dekker, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1088696 · Cited by 2
“Also, we found differences between men and women and between younger and older respondents, similar to what has been reported in the literature (44, 45).”
ResultSchick, M. R., Hostetler, K. L., Kirk‐Provencher, K. T., & Spillane, N. S. (2023) · Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/15332640.2023.2216162 · Cited by 2
“…female adolescents to report significantly greater depressive symptoms compared to male adolescents (Beals et al., 2005; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009; Salk et al., 2017) and previous work among American Indian adolescents finding females to drink alcohol at levels equal to or higher than males…”
Infection Rates Matter – Especially for People from Lower Social Class
Vogel, V., & Entringer, T. M. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000525 · Cited by 2
Yelpaze, İ. (2023) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2023.2268252 · Cited by 2
“To demonstrate the effect size of this difference, Salk, Hyde, and Abramson (2017) conducted a meta-analysis study.”
Malhi, G. S., & Bell, E. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009182232.005 · Cited by 2
Núñez‐Cortés, R., Oppenheimer-Lewin, D., Cruz‐Montecinos, C., Pérez‐Alenda, S., López‐Bueno, R., & Calatayud, J. (2023) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2023.2269910 · Cited by 4
“These gender differences are attributed to multifactorial causes at the biological, psychological and social levels (Noble, 2005, Parker & Brotchie, 2010, Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundCapellini, V. K., Paro, F. M., Vieira, R. D., Wittmer, V. L., Barbalho‐Moulim, M. C., Soares, S. C. S., de Oliveira, C. G. T., & Duarte, H. (2023) · Ciência & Saúde Coletiva · doi:10.1590/1413-812320232810.09922023 · Cited by 4
Yan, K., Feng, Y., Liu, Z., Shi, W., Jiang, Y., & Liu, J. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941231216894 · Cited by 2
“…depression and certain social factors that may precipitate or activate depressive states (Parker & Brotchie, 2010), and thus there are signi fi cant gender differences in the prevalence of depression, with depressive symptoms being significantly more common in women than in men (Salk et al., 2017).”
Lytsy, P., Alexanderson, K. A. E., & Friberg, E. (2019) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckz172 · Cited by 2
Berkowitz, M., Stern, E., Hofer, S. I., & Deiglmayr, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.032 · Cited by 3
Simanek, A. M., Meier, H. C. S., D’Aloisio, A. A., & Sandler, D. P. (2021) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-02013-5 · Cited by 2
“Despite well-documented gender differences in depression in the US [7], only a subset of existing studies examining the effects of early life SD on adulthood depression have assessed these associations among women, specifically [9,12,16,22,24,25,27,28].”
BackgroundSurmacz, N., Tylec, A., Ryś, M., & Kucharska, K. (2021) · Kwartalnik Naukowy Fides et Ratio · doi:10.34766/fetr.v47i3.917 · Cited by 2
Möhring, M., Krick, N. K., & Ditze, A. (2021) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2021.204 · Cited by 3
“Another possible explanation for the sex differences in the context of mental illness stigma could be the higher prevalence of depression among women (e.g., Kessler et al., 2012; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSaeed, W., Irfan, S., Zafar, N., & Cheema, F. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.52131/pjhss.2021.0903.0145 · Cited by 2
“It is in line with a previous study that showed considerable gender differences in depression levels, with male participants displaying higher levels of depression than females (Salk et al., 2017).”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2017-08
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 783-822
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC5532074
- OpenAlex
- W2609632515
- Cited by
- 2,622
- References
- 276
- Citations by year
- 2026: 352 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 403 · 2023: 354 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 261 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 153.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (DGE-071823; DRL 1138114)
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH018269-30)
- University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, depressive symptoms, adolescence, lifespan development, gender equity, cross-national comparison, health disparities, men's mental health
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Young Adult
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