Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the children's depression inventory: A meta-analysis.

Abstract

A within-scale meta-analysis was performed on 310 samples of children (ages 8-16; N = 61,424) responding to the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Girls' depression scores stayed steady from ages 8 to 11 and then increased between ages 12 and 16. Boys' CDI scores were stable from ages 8 to 16 except for a high CDI score at age 12. Girls' scores were slightly lower than boys' during childhood, but girls scored higher beginning at age 13. There were no socioeconomic status effects and no differences between White and Black samples. However, Hispanic samples scored significantly higher on the CDI. Analyses for birth cohort showed a slight decrease in boys' CDI scores over time and no change for girls. Longitudinal studies demonstrated a marked testing effect.

Cites (8)

1. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes
   Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan · 1991 · Journal of Abnormal Psychology
2. Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study
   Hankin, Benjamin L., Abramson, Lyn Y., Moffitt, Terrie E., Silva, Phil A., McGee, Rob, Angell, Kathryn E. · 1998 · Journal of Abnormal Psychology
3. The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey
   1994 · American Journal of Psychiatry
4. Gender differences in depression
   Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan · 2001 · Current Directions in Psychological Science
5. Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression.
   Pyszczynski, Tom, Greenberg, Jeff · 1987 · Psychological Bulletin
6. Depression in adolescence
   Petersen, Anne C., Compas, Bruce E., Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Stemmler, Mark, Ey, Sydney, Grant, Kathryn E. · 1993 · American Psychologist
7. Comorbidity of unipolar depression: II. Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults.
   Rohde, Paul, Lewinsohn, Peter M., Seeley, John R. · 1991 · Journal of Abnormal Psychology
8. The influence of genetic factors and life stress on depression among adolescent girls
   Silberg, Judy, Pickles, Andrew, Rutter, Michael, Hewitt, John, Simonoff, Emily, Maes, Hermine, Carbonneau, Rene, Murrelle, Lenn, Foley, Debra, Eaves, Lindon · 1999 · Archives of General Psychiatry

Cited by (70)

1. The gender similarities hypothesis.
   Hyde, Janet Shibley · 2005 · American Psychologist
2. Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms
   Salk, Rachel H., Hyde, Janet S., Abramson, Lyn Y. · 2017 · Psychological Bulletin
3. A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys
   Rose, Amanda J., Rudolph, Karen D. · 2006 · Psychological Bulletin
4. Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions
   Seligman, Martin E. P., Ernst, Randal M., Gillham, Jane, Reivich, Karen, Linkins, Mark · 2009 · Oxford Review of Education
5. Epidemiology of mental disorders in children and adolescents
   Merikangas, Kathleen Ries, Nakamura, Erin F., Kessler, Ronald C. · 2009 · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
6. Religiousness and depression: Evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events.
   Smith, Timothy B., McCullough, Michael E., Poll, Justin · 2003 · Psychological Bulletin
7. The ABCs of depression: integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression
   Hyde, Janet Shibley, Mezulis, Amy H., Abramson, Lyn Y. · 2008 · Psychological Review
8. Is there an epidemic of child or adolescent depression?
   Jane Costello, E., Erkanli, Alaattin, Angold, Adrian · 2006 · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
9. Emotion dysregulation and adolescent psychopathology: A prospective study
   McLaughlin, Katie A., Hatzenbuehler, Mark L., Mennin, Douglas S., Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan · 2011 · Behaviour Research and Therapy
10. Sex Differences in Adolescent Depression: Stress Exposure and Reactivity Models
    Hankin, Benjamin L, Mermelstein, Robin, Roesch, Linda · 2007 · Child Development
11. The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review
    Horowitz, Jason L., Garber, Judy · 2006 · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
12. Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults.
    Michl, Louisa C., McLaughlin, Katie A., Shepherd, Kathrine, Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan · 2013 · Journal of Abnormal Psychology
13. Generational Differences in Work-Related Attitudes: A Meta-analysis
    Costanza, David P., Badger, Jessica M., Fraser, Rebecca L., Severt, Jamie B., Gade, Paul A. · 2012 · Journal of Business and Psychology
14. Depressive symptoms in children and adolescents with chronic physical illness: An updated meta-analysis
    Pinquart, Martin, Shen, Yuhui · 2011 · Journal of Pediatric Psychology
15. Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss During the Middle School Years
    Fredriksen, Katia, Rhodes, Jean, Reddy, Ranjini, Way, Niobe · 2004 · Child Development
16. Socioeconomic status and child psychopathology in the United States: A meta-analysis of population-based studies
    Peverill, Matthew, Dirks, Melanie A., Narvaja, Tomás, Herts, Kate L., Comer, Jonathan S., McLaughlin, Katie A. · 2021 · Clinical Psychology Review
17. Developmental Trajectories of Anxiety and Depression in Early Adolescence
    McLaughlin, Katie A., King, Kevin · 2015 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
18. Academic and emotional functioning in middle school: The role of implicit theories
    Romero, Carissa, Master, Allison, Paunesku, Dave, Dweck, Carol S., Gross, James J. · 2014 · Emotion
19. Diabetes distress among adolescents with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review
    Hagger, Virginia, Hendrieckx, Christel, Sturt, Jackie, Skinner, Timothy C., Speight, Jane · 2016 · Current Diabetes Reports
20. Longitudinal associations between depressive problems, academic performance, and social functioning in adolescent boys and girls.
    Verboom, Charlotte E., Sijtsema, Jelle J., Verhulst, Frank C., Penninx, Brenda W. J. H., Ormel, Johan · 2014 · Developmental Psychology
21. Body Objectification and Depression in Adolescents: The Role of Gender, Shame, and Rumination
    Grabe, Shelly, Hyde, Janet Shibley, Lindberg, Sara M. · 2007 · Psychology of Women Quarterly
22. Emotion dysregulation as a mechanism linking peer victimization to internalizing symptoms in adolescents.
    McLaughlin, Katie A., Hatzenbuehler, Mark L., Hilt, Lori M. · 2009 · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
23. Puberty and depression
    Angold, Adrian, Costello, E. Jane · 2006 · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America
24. Gender differences in the relationship between internet addiction and depression: a cross-lagged study in Chinese adolescents
    Liang, Lichan, Zhou, Dan, Yuan, Chunyong, Shao, Aihui, Bian, Yufang · 2016 · Computers in Human Behavior
25. Variables Associated with Anxiety and Depression in Children with Autism
    Mayes, Susan Dickerson, Calhoun, Susan L., Murray, Michael J., Zahid, Jahanara · 2011 · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities
26. Frequency and quality of social networking among young adults: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and corumination.
    Davila, Joanne, Hershenberg, Rachel, Feinstein, Brian A., Gorman, Kaitlyn, Bhatia, Vickie, Starr, Lisa R. · 2012 · Psychology of Popular Media Culture
27. Prevention of depressive symptoms in adolescents: A randomized trial of cognitive-behavioral and interpersonal prevention programs.
    Horowitz, Jason L., Garber, Judy, Ciesla, Jeffrey A., Young, Jami F., Mufson, Laura · 2007 · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
28. Gender and depression
    Girgus, Joan S, Yang, Kaite · 2015 · Current Opinion in Psychology
29. Dispositional Mindfulness Moderates the Effects of Stress Among Adolescents: Rumination as a Mediator
    Ciesla, Jeffrey A., Reilly, Laura C., Dickson, Kelsey S., Emanuel, Amber S., Updegraff, John A. · 2012 · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
30. Depressive symptoms in children with cystic fibrosis and parents and its effects on adherence to airway clearance
    Smith, Beth A., Modi, Avani C., Quittner, Alexandra L., Wood, Beatrice L. · 2010 · Pediatric Pulmonology
31. Evaluation of universal, indicated, and combined cognitive-behavioral approaches to the prevention of depression among adolescents.
    Sheffield, Jeanie K., Spence, Susan H., Rapee, Ronald M., Kowalenko, Nick, Wignall, Ann, Davis, Anna, McLoone, Jordana · 2006 · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
32. A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion
    Vigil, Jacob Miguel · 2009 · Behavioral and Brain Sciences
33. Adolescent peer relationships and behavior problems predict young adults’ communication on social networking websites.
    Mikami, Amori Yee, Szwedo, David E., Allen, Joseph P., Evans, Meredyth A., Hare, Amanda L. · 2010 · Developmental Psychology
34. Cognitive Vulnerability–Stress Model of Depression During Adolescence: Investigating Depressive Symptom Specificity in a Multi-Wave Prospective Study
    Hankin, Benjamin L. · 2008 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
35. Cognitive-behavioural interventions for children who have been sexually abused
    Macdonald, Geraldine, Higgins, Julian PT, Ramchandani, Paul, Valentine, Jeffrey C, Bronger, Latricia P, Klein, Paul, O'Daniel, Roland, Pickering, Mark, Rademaker, Ben, Richardson, George et al. · 2012 · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
36. Parental Behaviors During Family Interactions Predict Changes in Depression and Anxiety Symptoms During Adolescence
    Schwartz, Orli S., Dudgeon, Paul, Sheeber, Lisa B., Yap, Marie B. H., Simmons, Julian G., Allen, Nicholas B. · 2012 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
37. Internalizing Problems in Adolescence: Linking Loneliness, Social Anxiety Symptoms, and Depressive Symptoms Over Time
    Danneel, Sofie, Nelemans, Stefanie, Spithoven, Annette, Bastin, Margot, Bijttebier, Patricia, Colpin, Hilde, Van Den Noortgate, Wim, Van Leeuwen, Karla, Verschueren, Karine, Goossens, Luc · 2019 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
38. Latino Adolescents’ Loneliness, Academic Performance, and the Buffering Nature of Friendships
    Benner, Aprile D. · 2011 · Journal of Youth and Adolescence
39. The contemporary face of gender differences and similarities in depression throughout adolescence: Development and chronicity
    Salk, Rachel H., Petersen, Jennifer L., Abramson, Lyn Y., Hyde, Janet S. · 2016 · Journal of Affective Disorders
40. Children's health and social mobility.
    Case, Anne, Paxson, Christina H · 2006 · The Future of Children
41. Culture, Context, and the Internalizing Distress of Mexican American Youth
    Polo, Antonio J., López, Steven R. · 2009 · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
42. The risk and protective factors associated with depression and anxiety in a national sample of Irish adolescents
    Dooley, B., Fitzgerald, A., Giollabhui, N. M. · 2015 · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine
43. Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms-A Longitudinal Study from Early to Late Adolescence
    Puukko, Kati, Hietajärvi, Lauri, Maksniemi, Erika, Alho, Kimmo, Salmela-Aro, Katariina · 2020 · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
44. Self-injury from early adolescence to early adulthood: Age-related course, recurrence, and services use in males and females from the community
    Steinhoff, Annekatrin, Ribeaud, Denis, Kupferschmid, Stephan, Raible-Destan, Nesrin, Quednow, Boris B., Hepp, Urs, Eisner, Manuel, Shanahan, Lilly · 2021 · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
45. Predictors of Attributional Style Change in Children
    Gibb, Brandon E., Alloy, Lauren B., Walshaw, Patricia D., Comer, Jonathan S., Shen, Gail H. C., Villari, Annette G. · 2006 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
46. The clinical significance of loss of control over eating in overweight adolescents
    Goldschmidt, Andrea B., Jones, Megan, Manwaring, Jamie L., Luce, Kristine H., Osborne, Megan I., Cunning, Darby, Taylor, Katie L., Doyle, Angela Celio, Wilfley, Denise E., Taylor, C. Barr · 2008 · International Journal of Eating Disorders
47. GHQ increases among Scottish 15 year olds 1987–2006
    Sweeting, Helen, Young, Robert, West, Patrick · 2009 · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology
48. Adolescent mindfulness and psychopathology: The role of emotion regulation
    Pepping, Christopher A., Duvenage, Megan, Cronin, Timothy J., Lyons, Anthony · 2016 · Personality and Individual Differences
49. Gender and racial/ethnic differences in binge eating symptoms in a nationally representative sample of adolescents in the United States
    Lee-Winn, Angela E., Reinblatt, Shauna P., Mojtabai, Ramin, Mendelson, Tamar · 2016 · Eating Behaviors
50. The Longitudinal Structure of the Children's Depression Inventory: Testing a Latent Trait-State Model.
    Cole, David A., Martin, Nina C. · 2005 · Psychological Assessment
51. Trajectories of individual depressive symptoms in adolescents: gender and family relationships as predictors
    Kouros, Chrystyna D., Garber, Judy · 2014 · Developmental Psychology
52. Depression and quality of life in children with sickle cell disease: The effect of social support
    Sehlo, Mohammad Gamal, Kamfar, Hayat Zakaria · 2015 · BMC Psychiatry
53. Clinical disease activity is associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescents and young adults with inflammatory bowel disease
    van den Brink, G., Stapersma, L., Vlug, L. E., Rizopolous, D., Bodelier, A. G., van Wering, H., Hurkmans, P. C. W. M., Stuyt, R. J. L., Hendriks, D. M., van der Burg, J. A. T. et al. · 2018 · Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
54. Men's depression and help-seeking through the lenses of gender.
    Addis, Michael E., Hoffman, Ethan · 2017 · The psychology of men and masculinities.
55. The Comfort Ability Pain Management Workshop: A Preliminary, Nonrandomized Investigation of a Brief, Cognitive, Biobehavioral, and Parent Training Intervention for Pediatric Chronic Pain
    Coakley, Rachael, Wihak, Tessa, Kossowsky, Joe, Iversen, Christina, Donado, Carolina · 2018 · Journal of Pediatric Psychology
56. The mediating effect of adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies on executive functioning impairment and depressive symptoms among adolescents
    Wante, Laura, Mezulis, Amy, Van Beveren, Marie-Lotte, Braet, Caroline · 2017 · Child Neuropsychology
57. Socioemotional trajectories in Black boys between kindergarten and the fifth grade: The role of cognitive skills and family in promoting resiliency.
    Brown, Jeffrey, Barbarin, Oscar, Scott, Kristin · 2013 · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
58. Trajectories of internalizing symptoms across childhood: The roles of biological self-regulation and maternal psychopathology
    Shanahan, Lilly, Calkins, Susan D., Keane, Susan P., Kelleher, Rachael, Suffness, Rebecca · 2014 · Development and Psychopathology
59. Sex differences in the development of emotion circuitry in adolescents at risk for substance abuse: A longitudinal fMRI study
    Hardee, Jillian E., Cope, Lora M., Munier, Emily C., Welsh, Robert C., Zucker, Robert A., Heitzeg, Mary M. · 2017 · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
60. Temporal dynamics and longitudinal co-occurrence of depression and different anxiety syndromes in youth: Evidence for reciprocal patterns in a 3-year prospective study
    Long, Erin E., Young, Jami F., Hankin, Benjamin L. · 2018 · Journal of Affective Disorders
61. Rumination, automatic thoughts, dysfunctional attitudes, and thought suppression as transdiagnostic factors in depression and anxiety
    Yapan, Saadet, Türkçapar, M. Hakan, Boysan, Murat · 2022 · Current Psychology
62. Subtyping children and adolescents with loss of control eating by negative affect and dietary restraint
    Goldschmidt, Andrea B., Tanofsky-Kraff, Marian, Goossens, Lien, Eddy, Kamryn T., Ringham, Rebecca, Yanovski, Susan Z., Braet, Caroline, Marcus, Marsha D., Wilfley, Denise E., Yanovski, Jack A. · 2008 · Behaviour Research and Therapy
63. Depressive symptoms and conversational self-focus in adolescents’ friendships
    Schwartz-Mette, Rebecca A., Rose, Amanda J. · 2016 · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
64. Case study: Longitudinal treatment of adolescents with depression and inflammatory bowel disease
    SZIGETHY, EVA, CARPENTER, JOHANNA, BAUM, EMILY, KENNEY, ELYSE, BAPTISTA-NETO, LOURIVAL, BEARDSLEE, WILLIAM R., DeMASO, DAVID RAY · 2006 · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
65. Ecological Correlates of Depression and Self-Esteem in Rural Youth
    Smokowski, Paul R., Evans, Caroline B. R., Cotter, Katie L., Guo, Shenyang · 2014 · Child Psychiatry & Human Development
66. Contextual risk and promotive processes in Puerto Rican youths' internalizing trajectories in Puerto Rico and New York
    Ramos-Olazagasti, María A., Shrout, Patrick E., Yoshikawa, Hirokazu, Canino, Glorisa J., Bird, Héctor R. · 2013 · Development and Psychopathology
67. Symptom Variation on the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children: A Within‐Scale Meta‐Analytic Review
    Martinez, William, Polo, Antonio J., Zelic, Kate J. · 2014 · Journal of Traumatic Stress
68. Will boys’ mental health fare worse under a hotter climate in Australia?
    Xu, Ying, Wheeler, Sarah Ann, Zuo, Alec · 2018 · Population and Environment
69. Predictors of Clinical Outcomes in Sexually Abused Adolescents
    Tocker, Lotem, Ben-Amitay, Galit, Horesh-Reinman, Netta, Lask, Michal, Toren, Paz · 2017 · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse
70. Factors influencing emerging adults' use of outpatient mental health services
    Black, Sarah R., Fristad, Mary A., Arnold, L. Eugene, Birmaher, Boris, Findling, Robert L., Youngstrom, Eric A., Horwitz, Sarah M. · 2019 · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health