Effects of stimulant medication on neuropsychological functioning in college students without ADHD.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Test-retest reliability for Spatial Span total items correct was moderate (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.67) in samples without ADHD.

“Test-retest reliability for total items correct was moderate (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.67) in samples without ADHD (Woods et al., 2016).”

• cites Woods et al., 2016 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other studies examining the effects of stimulant medication using neuropsychological measures have also used this waiting period length.

“Other studies examining the effects of stimulant medication using neuropsychological measures have also used this waiting period length (e.g., Batistela et al., 2016).”

• cites Batistela et al., 2016 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

NPS is especially prevalent during emerging adulthood, particularly among college students compared to peers who do not attend college.

“NPS becomes especially prevalent during emerging adulthood, particularly among college students when compared to their peers who do not attend college (McCabe et al., 2018; Schepis et al., 2020).”

• cites McCabe et al., 2018 sourceSupported
• cites Schepis et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar screening criteria have been used by other studies.

“Similar screening criteria have been used by other studies (e.g., Ilieva et al., 2013).”

• cites Ilieva et al., 2013 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Six prior studies have largely found no evidence of meaningful neuropsychological improvement in students without ADHD who ingest a stimulant medication, including no improvements for working memory, response inhibition, vigilance, cognitive processing speed, planning, set-shifting, interference control, and distraction suppression.

“Six studies have largely found no evidence of meaningful neuropsychological improvement in students without ADHD who ingest a stimulant medication.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted

  “These studies demonstrated no improvements from stimulant medication for NPDs including working memory, response inhibition, vigilance, cognitive processing speed, planning, set-shifting, interference control, and distraction suppression (Batistela et al., 2016; Bray et al., 2004; Cropsey et al., 2017; Ilieva et al., 2013; Mommaerts et al., 2013; Weyandt et al., 2018).”

• cites Batistela et al., 2016 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports no effect of methylphenidate on cognitive functioning in this study of healthy young people, and it describes another study with no improvement in attention or working memory. It does not establish the citing sentence’s count of six studies; it also reports improvements in visuo-spatial memory and planning in one prior study. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Bray et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cropsey et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Alternative strategies, such as spaced practice and sufficient sleep, are likely to have a greater impact on academic performance for students.

“alternative strategies, such as spaced practice and sufficient sleep, are likely to have a greater impact on academic performance for students (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2006, Okano et al, 2019).”

• cites Cepeda et al., 2006 sourcePartly supported

  The Educational Implications section (p. 14) says spaced learning improves long-term retention compared with concentrating study in one session, including in studies of children. Cepeda et al. do not establish its comparative impact on students’ overall academic performance; sufficient sleep is associated with the other citation, not this one. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Okano et al, 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that longer, better-quality, more consistent sleep was associated with better academic performance. But it says a causal effect requires randomized trials, so the claim that sufficient sleep is likely to have a greater impact is stronger than this study establishes. Spaced practice is attributed to the other citation, not Okano et al. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants reported minimal symptoms of HI (M = 0.67; SD = 0.91).

“HI (M = 0.67; SD = 0.91)”

May combine two claims.

For two outcomes on the Continuous Performance Task - Identical Pairs, performance improved either in both the stimulant and placebo conditions compared to baseline or in the placebo condition compared to baseline.

“Specifically, for two outcomes on an objective measure (i.e., Continuous Performance Task - Identical Pairs), performance improved in either both the stimulant and placebo conditions compared to baseline or the placebo condition compared to baseline.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Improvement occurred in the placebo or placebo and stimulant medication conditions compared to baseline for two outcomes on an objective task.

“This occurred for two outcomes on an objective task.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “improvements occurred for 2 of 6 outcomes on objective tasks”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants reported consistently receiving adequate sleep on the night before each of the laboratory sessions (M = 6.79 - 7.02).

“Participants reported consistently receiving adequate sleep on the night before each of the laboratory sessions (M = 6.79 – 7.02).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scores on the IUQ indicated a minimal likelihood for participants at the present time to misuse a stimulant medication to aid with studying or improving academic performance (M = 1.81; range: 0 - 13 out of 100).

“Scores on the IUQ indicated a minimal likelihood for participants at the present time to misuse a stimulant medication to aid with studying or improving academic performance (M = 1.81; range: 0 – 13 out of 100)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scores on the IUQ indicated a minimal likelihood for participants at the present time to misuse a stimulant medication to party or get high (M = 0.19; range: 0 - 1 out of 100).

“or to party or get high (M = 0.19; range: 0 – 1 out of 100)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Self-report measures that assess behavioral manifestations of NPDs such as time management can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of stimulant medication on NPDs.

“The use of self-report measures that assess behavioral manifestations of NPDs such as time management can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of stimulant medication on NPDs.”

May combine two claims.

The remaining three of the six prior studies administered 10 mg, 20 mg, or 30 mg of mixed amphetamine salts and used a within-subjects design.

“The remaining three out of the six studies administered 10 mg, 20 mg, or 30 mg of mixed amphetamine salts (formulations were not described) and used a within-subjects design.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The CPT-IP has demonstrated good test-retest reliability for d-prime (r = 0.81) and acceptable test-retest reliability for mean reaction time (r = 0.74) in samples without ADHD.

“The CPT-IP has demonstrated good test-retest reliability for d-prime (r = 0.81) and acceptable test-retest reliability for mean reaction time (r = 0.74) in samples without ADHD (Hahn et al., 2014).”

• cites Hahn et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This study was preregistered.

“This study was preregistered; see https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03935646.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Categorization as low risk was monitored and verified throughout the study.

“Categorization as low risk was monitored and verified throughout the study.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The two experimental sessions were double-blinded and counterbalanced.

“The two experimental sessions were double-blinded and counterbalanced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted). May combine two claims.

There is a firmly held belief that stimulant medication improves executive functions and academic skills while decreasing distractibility, restlessness, fatigue, and sleepiness.

“There is a firmly held belief that stimulant medication improves executive functions (EFs; e.g., sustained attention, working memory) and academic skills (e.g., reading comprehension, productivity) while decreasing distractibility, restlessness, fatigue, and sleepiness (Benson et al., 2015; DeSantis et al., 2008; Hartung et al., 2013; Rabiner et al., 2009).”

• cites Benson et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites DeSantis et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hartung et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants who completed all study sessions were included in analyses.

“Participants who completed all study sessions were included in analyses.”

May combine two claims.

College students without ADHD are likely to experience little to no benefit from taking stimulant medication because there is no dopamine deficit to correct.

“College students without ADHD, however, are likely to experience little to no benefit from taking stimulant medication because there is no dopamine deficit to correct (e.g., Cropsey et al., 2017).”

• cites Cropsey et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adequate sample size was determined using a power analysis.

“Adequate sample size was determined using a power analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Benjamini-Hochberg procedure was used to control for the false discovery rate in exploratory analyses.

“The Benjamini-Hochberg (BH) procedure was used to control for the false discovery rate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Self-report measures of behavioral manifestations of NPDs are more ecologically valid and may provide a convincing argument to students that NPS does not improve NPDs most relevant to behavioral changes that could result in academic enhancement.

“Additionally, these types of measures are more ecologically valid and may provide a convincing argument to students that NPS does not improve NPDs most relevant to behavioral changes that could result in academic enhancement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There were no adverse reactions to any administered capsules and no unexpected in-lab emergencies.

“There were no adverse reactions to any administered capsules and no unexpected in-lab emergencies.”

May combine two claims.

The final sample of 21 had high power (1 - β = 0.88) to detect a medium effect (f = 0.25) and high power (1 - β = 0.99) to detect a large effect (f = 0.40).

“The final sample of 21 had high power (1 - β = 0.88) to detect a medium effect (f = 0.25) and high power (1- β = 0.99) to detect a large effect (f = 0.40).”

• cites Faul et al., 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The CONSORT reporting guidelines were used to present data from this study.

“The CONSORT reporting guidelines (Schulz et al. 2010) were used to present data from this study (see Figure 1).”

• cites Schulz et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other studies have observed self-reported EF changes resulting from stimulant medication use among college students with ADHD.

“Although no studies have used the BDEFS-SF-M, other studies (e.g., DuPaul et al., 2012) have observed self-reported EF changes resulting from stimulant medication use among college students with ADHD.”

• cites DuPaul et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants categorized as low risk for amphetamine-dextroamphetamine use were included in the study.

“Participants categorized as low risk for amphetamine–dextroamphetamine use were included in the study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Across these three within-subjects studies, participants held positive beliefs about receiving stimulant medication.

“Across these three studies, participants held positive beliefs about receiving stimulant medication.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Both types of capsules were visibly indistinguishable.

“Both types of capsules were visibly indistinguishable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For the current study, internal consistency was good for the IA subscale (α = 0.85) and questionable for the HI subscale (α = 0.67) on the DSM-5 ADHD Symptoms Checklist.

“For the current study, internal consistency was good for the IA subscale (α = 0.85) and questionable for the HI subscale (α = 0.67).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Consumption of caffeine was not monitored between sessions, although participants abstained from caffeine for at least 12 hours prior to each session.

“Consumption of caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea) was not monitored between sessions, although participants abstained from caffeine for at least 12 hours prior to each session.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

College students have particularly strong beliefs about neuropsychological enhancement from NPS, especially in improving academic performance.

“College students have particularly strong beliefs about neuropsychological enhancement from NPS, especially in improving academic performance (e.g., Benson et al., 2015).”

• cites Benson et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Post-baseline improvements for some outcomes may also be due to increases in motivation from receiving a capsule.

“Post-baseline improvements for some outcomes may also be due to increases in motivation from receiving a capsule.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

There are other factors unrelated to the study that may have influenced how participants responded to self-report/subjective measures completed at least 24 hours after the start of sessions.

“there are other factors unrelated to the study that may have influenced how participants responded”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Because only amphetamine-dextroamphetamine IR 10 mg was administered, results do not necessarily apply to other dosages, formulations (i.e., extended-release), or varieties of stimulant medication, or account for individual variations of usage or side effects.

“Because only amphetamine–dextroamphetamine IR 10 mg was administered in the current study, results do not necessarily apply to other dosages, formulations (i.e., extended-release), or varieties of stimulant medication, or account for individual variations of usage (e.g., taking multiple doses in a 24-hour period) or side effects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Meals prior to each session were not standardized, potentially varying the rate and extent of stimulant absorption.

“Meals prior to each session were not standardized, potentially varying the rate and extent of stimulant absorption.”