Cited by 158Personality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionSocial Power and Status Dynamics

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Is self-regard a sociometer or a hierometer? Self-esteem tracks status and inclusion, narcissism tracks status.

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Mahadevan, Nikhila, Gregg, Aiden P., Sedikides, Constantine·2019·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

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Abstract

What adaptive function does self-regard serve? Sociometer theory predicts that it positively tracks social inclusion. A new theory, hierometer theory, predicts that it positively tracks social status. We tested both predictions with respect to two types of self-regard: self-esteem and narcissism. Study 1 (N = 940), featuring a cross-sectional design, found that both status and inclusion covaried positively with self-esteem, but that status alone covaried positively with narcissism. These links held independently of gender, age, and the Big Five personality traits. Study 2 (N = 627), a preregistered cross-sectional study, obtained similar results with alternative measures of self-esteem and narcissism. Studies 3-4 featured experimental designs in which status and inclusion were orthogonally manipulated. Study 3 (N = 104) found that both higher status and higher inclusion promoted higher self-esteem, whereas only higher status promoted higher narcissism. Study 4 (N = 259) obtained similar results with alternative measures of self-esteem and narcissism. The findings suggest that self-esteem operates as both sociometer and hierometer, positively tracking both status and inclusion, whereas narcissism operates primarily as a hierometer, positively tracking status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

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Agency‐Communion and Interest in Prosocial Behavior: Social Motives for Assimilation and Contrast Explain Sociocultural Inconsistencies
Gebauer, J. E., Sedikides, C., Lüdtke, O., & Neberich, W. (2013) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12076 · Cited by 39
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Equivalence of Narcissistic Personality Inventory constructs and correlates across scoring approaches and response formats
Wetzel, E., Roberts, B. W., Fraley, R. C., & Brown, A. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.12.002 · Cited by 38
Intellectual arrogance and intellectual humility: correlational evidence for an evolutionary-embodied-epistemological account
Gregg, A. P., Mahadevan, N., & Sedikides, C. (2016) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2016.1167942 · Cited by 36
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A Comparison of Unidimensionality and Measurement Precision of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire
Grosz, M. P., Emons, W. H. M., Wetzel, E., Leckelt, M., Chopik, W. J., Rose, N., & Back, M. D. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116686686 · Cited by 27
An experimental investigation of the influence of agentic and communal Facebook use on grandiose narcissism
Horton, R. S., Reid, C. A., Barber, J. M., Miracle, J., & Green, J. D. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.038 · Cited by 26
Experiments with people : revelations from social psychology
Abelson, R. P., Frey, K. P., & Gregg, A. P. (2003) · Thammasat University Digital Collections · Cited by 25
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Testing competence and acceptance explanations of self-esteem
Koch, E. J., & Shepperd, J. A. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601005826 · Cited by 20

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The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit
Grapsas, S., Brummelman, E., Back, M. D., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619873350 · Cited by 312
The sociality of personal and collective nostalgia
Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2019) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2019.1630098 · Cited by 208
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Narcissism and the pursuit of status
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Vrabel, J. K., McCabe, G. A., Cosby, C. A., Traeder, C. K., Hobbs, K. A., & Southard, A. C. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12392 · Cited by 193
Forms and Functions of the Self-Conscious Emotions
Sznycer, D. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.11.007 · Cited by 183
In Search of Narcissus
Sedikides, C. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.10.010 · Cited by 152
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See all 158

Authors: Mahadevan, N., Gregg, A. P., & Sedikides, C.
Affiliations: University of Southampton (GB)
Corresponding author: Mahadevan, Nikhila
ORCID: Mahadevan, Nikhila
Gregg, Aiden P.
Sedikides, Constantine
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2019-03
Volume: 116
Issue: 3
Pages: 444-466
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/pspp0000189
OpenAlex: W2796264952
Cited by: 158
References: 118
Citations by year: 2026: 16 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 11
FWCI: 15.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
doi.org
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
Keywords: self-esteem, narcissism, sociometer theory, social status, social inclusion, self-regard
MeSH terms: Adult, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Male, Narcissism, Psychological Theory, Psychology, Social, Self Concept, Social Class, Psychological Distance, Young Adult

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Is self-regard a sociometer or a hierometer? Self-esteem tracks status and inclusion, narcissism tracks status.

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