Imprint of assortative mating on the human genome
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Preference for mates with similar phenotypes; that is, assortative mating, is widely observed in humans 1-5 and has evolutionary consequences 6-8. Under Fisher's classical theory 6, assortative mating is predicted to induce a signature in the genome at trait-associated loci that can be detected and quantified. Here, we develop and apply a method to quantify assortative mating on a specific trait by estimating the correlation (θ) between genetic predictors of the trait from single nucleotide polymorphisms on odd- versus even-numbered chromosomes. We show by theory and simulation that the effect of assortative mating can be quantified in the presence of population stratification. We applied this approach to 32 complex traits and diseases using single nucleotide polymorphism data from ~400,000 unrelated individuals of European ancestry. We found significant evidence of assortative mating for height (θ = 3.2%) and educational attainment (θ = 2.7%), both of which were consistent with theoretical predictions. Overall, our results imply that assortative mating involves multiple traits and affects the genomic architecture of loci that are associated with these traits, and that the consequence of mate choice can be detected from a random sample of genomes.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The primary explanation for positive LDSC estimates of correlation between DGEs and average NTCs for height and EA is likely assortative mating, which is strong for EA and height, although IGEs that are positively correlated with DGEs could also contribute.
“The primary explanation is likely AM, which is strong for EA and height25,31, although IGEs that are positively correlated with DGEs could also contribute3.”
From Family-GWAS reveals effects of environment and mating on genetic associations (2024) · cites this paper as [25]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGWAS associations for some phenotypes estimated from samples of unrelated individuals also capture effects of demography (assortative mating and population stratification) and indirect genetic effects of relatives.
“However, there is growing evidence that GWAS associations for some phenotypes estimated from samples of unrelated individuals also capture effects of demography7,8 (assortative mating9–11 and population stratification12) and indirect genetic effects of relatives13–19 (Fig. 1).”
From Within-sibship genome-wide association analyses decrease bias in estimates of direct genetic effects (2022) · cites this paper as [11]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
PLINK: a tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses.
Purcell, S., Neale, B., Todd-Brown, K., Thomas, L., Ferreira, M. A. R., Bender, D., Maller, J., Sklar, P., de Bakker, P. I. W., Daly, M. J., et al. (2007) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1086/519795 · Cited by 34,089 · see citing works
A global reference for human genetic variation
The 1000 Genomes Project Consortium, authors, C., Auton, A., Abecasis, G. R., Steering committee, Altshuler, D. M., Durbin, R. M., Abecasis, G. R., Bentley, D. R., Chakravarti, A., et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature15393 · Cited by 18,247 · see citing works
The UK Biobank resource with deep phenotyping and genomic data
Bycroft, C., Freeman, C., Petkova, D., Band, G., Elliott, L. T., Sharp, K., Motyer, A., Vukcevic, D., Delaneau, O., O’Connell, J., et al. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0579-z · Cited by 8,876 · see citing works
GCTA: a tool for genome-wide complex trait analysis
Yang, J., Lee, S. H., Goddard, M. E., & Visscher, P. M. (2011) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.11.011 · Cited by 8,279 · see citing works
Self-citationXV.—The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance.
Fisher, R. A. (1919) · Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh · doi:10.1017/s0080456800012163 · Cited by 4,387 · see citing works
An introduction to population genetics theory
Crow, J. F., & Kimura, M. (1970) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,223 · see citing works
Integrating common and rare genetic variation in diverse human populations
The International HapMap 3 Consortium (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09298 · Cited by 3,026 · see citing works
An Expanded View of Complex Traits: From Polygenic to Omnigenic
Boyle, E. A., Li, Y. I., & Pritchard, J. K. (2017) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.038 · Cited by 2,851 · see citing works
A reference panel of 64,976 haplotypes for genotype imputation
the Haplotype Reference Consortium (2016) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3643 · Cited by 2,836 · see citing works
23andMe Research Team, Lee, J. J., COGENT (Cognitive Genomics Consortium), Social Science Genetic Association Consortium, Wedow, R., Okbay, A., Kong, E., Maghzian, O., Zacher, M., Nguyen-Viet, T. A., et al. (2018) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0147-3 · Cited by 2,470 · see citing works
Self-citationYengo, L., Sidorenko, J., Kemper, K. E., Zheng, Z., Wood, A. R., Weedon, M. N., Frayling, T. M., Hirschhorn, J. N., Yang, J., & Visscher, P. M. (2018) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddy271 · Cited by 2,305 · see citing works
Self-citationBlundell, J. E., Baker, J. L., Boyland, E. J., Blaak, E. E., Charzewska, J., Henauw, S. D., Frühbeck, G., González‐Gross, M., Hebebrand, J., Holm, L., et al. (2017) · Obesity Facts · doi:10.1159/000455952 · Cited by 1,980 · see citing works
The Electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) Consortium, Wood, A. R., The MIGen Consortium, The PAGE Consortium, Study, T. L. C., Esko, T., Yang, J., Vedantam, S., Pers, T. H., Gustafsson, S., et al. (2014) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3097 · Cited by 1,853 · see citing works
Self-citationGenome-wide association study identifies 74 loci associated with educational attainment
Okbay, A., Beauchamp, J. P., Fontana, M. A., Lee, J. J., Pers, T. H., Rietveld, C. A., Turley, P., Chen, G.-B., Emilsson, V., Meddens, S. F. W., et al. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature17671 · Cited by 1,297 · see citing works
Self-citationFive Decades of Educational Assortative Mating
Mare, R. D. (1991) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095670 · Cited by 1,178 · see citing works
Introduction to sample size determination and power analysis for clinical trials
Lachin, J. M. (1981) · Controlled Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/0197-2456(81)90001-5 · Cited by 1,012 · see citing works
Genome-wide genetic data on ~500,000 UK Biobank participantsPreprint
Bycroft, C., Freeman, C., Petkova, D., Band, G., Elliott, L. T., Sharp, K., Motyer, A., Vukcevic, D., Delaneau, O., O’Connell, J., et al. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/166298 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
UK Biobank: Current status and what it means for epidemiology
Allen, N., Sudlow, C., Downey, P., Peakman, T., Danesh, J., Elliott, P., Gallacher, J., Green, J., Matthews, P., Pell, J., et al. (2012) · Health Policy and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.hlpt.2012.07.003 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Sniekers, S., Stringer, S., Watanabe, K., Jansen, P. R., Coleman, J. R. I., Krapohl, E., Taskesen, E., Hammerschlag, A. R., Okbay, A., Zabaneh, D., et al. (2017) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3869 · Cited by 490 · see citing works
Self-citationA population genetic signal of polygenic adaptation
Berg, J. J., & Coop, G. (2014) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004412 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Kemp, J. P., Morris, J. A., Medina‐Gómez, C., Forgetta, V., Warrington, N. M., Youlten, S. E., Zheng, J., Gregson, C. L., Grundberg, E., Trajanoska, K., et al. (2017) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3949 · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Model-fitting approaches to the analysis of human behaviour
Eaves, L. J., Last, K. A., Young, P. A., & Martin, N. G. (1978) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/hdy.1978.101 · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Jiang, Y., Bolnick, D. I., & Kirkpatrick, M. (2013) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/670160 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
The PRACTICAL Consortium, Day, F. R., kConFab Investigators, AOCS Investigators, Scotland, G., EPIC-InterAct Consortium, Study, L. C., Ruth, K. S., Thompson, D. J., Lunetta, K. L., et al. (2015) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3412 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Self-citationDetection of human adaptation during the past 2000 years
Field, Y., Boyle, E. A., Telis, N., Gao, Z., Gaulton, K. J., Golan, D., Yengo, L., Rocheleau, G., Froguel, P., McCarthy, M. I., et al. (2016) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aag0776 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Self-citationAssortative mating, or who marries whom?
Vandenberg, S. G. (1972) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf01065686 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Fast Principal-Component Analysis Reveals Convergent Evolution of ADH1B in Europe and East Asia
Galinsky, K. J., Bhatia, G., Loh, P., Georgiev, S., Mukherjee, S., Patterson, N. J., & Price, A. L. (2016) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2015.12.022 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Sniekers, S., Stringer, S., Watanabe, K., Jansen, P. R., Coleman, J. R. I., Krapohl, E. M. L., Taskesen, E., Hammerschlag, A. R., Okbay, A., Zabaneh, D., et al. (2017) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng1017-1558c · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citationGenetic evidence of assortative mating in humans
Robinson, M. R., Kleinman, A., Graff, M., Vinkhuyzen, A. A. E., Couper, D., Miller, M. B., Peyrot, W. J., Abdellaoui, A., Zietsch, B. P., Nolte, I. M., et al. (2017) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-016-0016 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citationThe mathematical theory of quantitative genetics.
Bulmer, M. G. (1985) · Cited by 307 · see citing works
ON THE LAWS OF INHERITANCE IN MAN: I. INHERITANCE OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERS
PEARSON, K., & Lee, A. M. (1903) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/2.4.357 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Assortative mating with respect to physical characteristics
Spuhler, J. N. (1968) · Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.1968.9987763 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Population genetic differentiation of height and body mass index across Europe
Robinson, M. R., Hemani, G., Medina‐Gómez, C., Mezzavilla, M., Esko, T., Shakhbazov, K., Powell, J. E., Vinkhuyzen, A. A. E., Berndt, S. I., Gustafsson, S., et al. (2015) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.3401 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of assortative mating on the genetic composition of a population
Crow, J. F., & Felsenstein, J. (1968) · Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.1968.9987760 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Patterns of nonrandom mating within and across 11 major psychiatric disorders
Nordsletten, A. E., Larsson, H., Crowley, J. J., Almqvist, C., Lichtenstein, P., & Mataix-Cols, D. (2016) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.3192 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
SYSTEMS OF MATING. III. ASSORTATIVE MATING BASED ON SOMATIC RESEMBLANCE
Wright, S. (1921) · Genetics · doi:10.1093/genetics/6.2.144 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Assortative mating by body height and BMI: Finnish Twins and their spouses
Silventoinen, K., Kaprio, J. A., Lahelma, E. T., Viken, R. J., & Rose, R. J. (2003) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.10183 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Married couples' risk of same disease: cross sectional study
Hippisley‐Cox, J., Coupland, C., Pringle, M., Crown, N., & Hammersley, V. (2002) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7365.636 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Genetics and educational attainment
Cesarini, D. A., & Visscher, P. M. (2017) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-017-0005-6 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationShine, R., O'connor, D., LeMaster, M. P., & Mason, R. T. (2001) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1712 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Arpana Agrawal, A., Heath, A. C., Grant, J. D., Pergadia, M. L., Statham, D. J., Bucholz, K. K., Martin, N. G., & Madden, P. A. F. (2006) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9081-8 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Birds of a Feather Do Flock Together
Youyou, W., Stillwell, D. J., Schwartz, H. A., & Kosiński, M. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797616678187 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Assortative mating for human height: A meta‐analysis
Stulp, G., Simons, M. J. P., Grasman, S., & Pollet, T. V. (2017) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22917 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Ancestry-related assortative mating in Latino populations
RISCH, N. J., Choudhry, S., Vía, M., Basu, A., Sebro, R., Eng, C. S., Beckman, K. B., Thyne, S. M., Chapela, R., Rodríguez‐Santana, J., et al. (2009) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2009-10-11-r132 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Assortative mating and differential fertility by phenotype and genotype across the 20th century
Conley, D., Laidley, T., Belsky, D. W., Fletcher, J. M., Boardman, J. D., & Domingue, B. W. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1523592113 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Hugh-Jones, D., Verweij, K. J. H., Pourcain, B. S., & Abdellaoui, A. (2016) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.08.005 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Sebro, R., Hoffman, T. J., Lange, C., Rogus, J. J., & RISCH, N. J. (2010) · Genetic Epidemiology · doi:10.1002/gepi.20528 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Assortative marriages by body mass index have increased simultaneously with the obesity epidemic
Ajslev, T. A. (2012) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2012.00125 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Genetic determination of height-mediated mate choice
Tenesa, A., Rawlik, K., Navarro, P., & Canela‐Xandri, O. (2015) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0833-8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Structured mating: Patterns and implications
Sebro, R., Peloso, G. M., Dupuis, J., & RISCH, N. J. (2017) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006655 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Selecting SNPs to Identify Ancestry
Sampson, J. N., Kídd, K. K., Kidd, J. R., & Zhao, H. (2011) · Annals of Human Genetics · doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2011.00656.x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Assortative mating for a quantitative character
Nagylaki, T. (1982) · Journal of Mathematical Biology · doi:10.1007/bf00275161 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Height associated variants demonstrate assortative mating in human populations
Li, X., Redline, S. S., Zhang, X., Williams, S. M., & Zhu, X. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15864-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Quantitative characters under assortative mating: Gametic model
Gimelfarb, A. (1984) · Theoretical Population Biology · doi:10.1016/0040-5809(84)90012-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
On the Laws of Inheritance in Man: I. Inheritance of Physical Characters
Pearson, K., & Lee, A. (1903) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2331507
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
15 years of GWAS discovery: Realizing the promise
Abdellaoui, A., Yengo, L., Verweij, K. J. H., & Visscher, P. M. (2023) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2022.12.011 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Self-citationWainschtein, P., Jain, D., Zheng, Z., TOPMed Anthropometry Working Group, Aslibekyan, S. W., Becker, D. M., Bi, W., Brody, J. A., Carlson, J. C., Correa, A., et al. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00997-7 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Within-sibship genome-wide association analyses decrease bias in estimates of direct genetic effects
Howe, L. J., Nivard, M. G., Morris, T. T., Hansen, A. F., Rasheed, H., Cho, Y., Chittoor, G., Ahlskog, R., Lind, P. A., Palviainen, T., et al. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-022-01062-7 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Self-citationDeconstructing the sources of genotype-phenotype associations in humans
Young, A. I., Benonisdottir, S., Przeworski, M., & Kong, A. (2019) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aax3710 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Risk prediction of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease implies an oligogenic architecture
Zhang, Q., Sidorenko, J., Couvy-Duchesne, B., Marioni, R. E., Wright, M. J., Goate, A. M., Marcora, E., Huang, K.-L., Porter, T., Laws, S. M., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18534-1 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Self-citationRecovery of trait heritability from whole genome sequence data
Wainschtein, P., Jain, D., Zheng, Z., TOPMed Anthropometry Working Group, NHLBI Trans-Omics for Precision Medicine (TOPMed) Consortium, Cupples, L. A., Shadyab, A. H., McKnight, B., Shoemaker, B. M., Mitchell, B. D., et al. (2019) · doi:10.1101/588020 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
Self-citationResource profile and user guide of the Polygenic Index Repository
Becker, J., Burik, C. A. P., Goldman, G., Wang, N., Jayashankar, H., Bennett, M., Belsky, D. W., Linnér, R. K., Ahlskog, R., Kleinman, A., et al. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01119-3 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Self-citationZeng, J., Xue, A., Jiang, L., Lloyd-Jones, L. R., Wu, Y., Wang, H., Zheng, Z., Yengo, L., Kemper, K. E., Goddard, M. E., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21446-3 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Self-citationA critique of life history approaches to human trait covariation
Zietsch, B. P., & Sidari, M. J. (2019) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.05.007 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
The genetic basis of major depressive disorder
Jonathan Flint, C. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-01957-9 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Cross-trait assortative mating is widespread and inflates genetic correlation estimates
Border, R., Athanasiadis, G. I., Buil, A., Schork, A. J., Cai, N., Young, A. I., Werge, T. M., Jonathan Flint, C., Kendler, K. S., Sankararaman, S., et al. (2022) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abo2059 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Genetic prediction of complex traits with polygenic scores: a statistical review
Ma, Y., & Zhou, X. (2021) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.tig.2021.06.004 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Mendelian imputation of parental genotypes improves estimates of direct genetic effects
Young, A. I., Nehzati, S. M., Benonisdottir, S., Okbay, A., Jayashankar, H., Lee, C., Cesarini, D., Benjamin, D. J., Turley, P., & Kong, A. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-022-01085-0 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Self-citationPolygenic scores: prediction versus explanation
Plomin, R. J., & von Stumm, S. (2021) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01348-y · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Screening Human Embryos for Polygenic Traits Has Limited Utility
Karavani, E., Zuk, O., Zeevi, D., Barzilai, N., Stefanis, N. C., Hatzimanolis, A., Smyrnis, N., Avramopoulos, D., Kruglyak, L., Atzmon, G., et al. (2019) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.10.033 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Horwitz, T. B., Balbona, J. V., Paulich, K. N., & Keller, M. C. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01672-z · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationGenotyping, sequencing and analysis of 140,000 adults from Mexico City
Ziyatdinov, A., Torres, J., Alegre-Díaz, J., Backman, J., Mbatchou, J. S., Turner, M., Gaynor, S. M., Joseph, T., Zou, Y., Liu, D., et al. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06595-3 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Demange, P., Hottenga, J., Abdellaoui, A., Eilertsen, E. M., Malanchini, M., Domingue, B. W., Armstrong‐Carter, E., de Zeeuw, E. L., Rimfeld, K., Boomsma, D. I., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32003-x · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Accurate estimation of SNP-heritability from biobank-scale data irrespective of genetic architecture
Hou, K., Burch, K. S., Majumdar, A., Shi, H., Mancuso, N., Wu, Y., Sankararaman, S., & Pasaniuc, B. (2019) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-019-0465-0 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Assortative mating biases marker-based heritability estimators
Border, R., O’Rourke, S., de Candia, T. R., Goddard, M. E., Visscher, P. M., Yengo, L., Jones, M., & Keller, M. C. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28294-9 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom R.A. Fisher’s 1918 Paper to GWAS a Century Later
Visscher, P. M., & Goddard, M. E. (2019) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.118.301594 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationVeller, C., & Coop, G. (2024) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3002511 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Examining the role of common variants in rare neurodevelopmental conditions
Huang, Q. Q., Wigdor, E. M., Malawsky, D. S., Campbell, P. H., Samocha, K. E., Chundru, V. K., Danecek, P., Lindsay, S., Marchant, T., Koko, M., et al. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08217-y · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Nivard, M. G., Belsky, D. W., Harden, K. P., Baier, T., Andreassen, O. A., Ystrøm, E., van Bergen, E., & Lyngstad, T. H. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01796-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Modeling assortative mating and genetic similarities between partners, siblings, and in-laws
Torvik, F. A., Eilertsen, E. M., Hannigan, L. J., Cheesman, R., Howe, L. J., Magnus, P. M., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., Andreassen, O. A., Njølstad, P. R., Havdahl, A., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28774-y · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Cheesman, R., Eilertsen, E. M., Ahmadzadeh, Y. I., Gjerde, L. C., Hannigan, L. J., Havdahl, A., Young, A. I., Eley, T. C., Njølstad, P. R., Magnus, P. M., et al. (2020) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-020-01760-1 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Within-sibship GWAS improve estimates of direct genetic effectsPreprint
Howe, L. J., Nivard, M. G., Morris, T., Hansen, A. F., Rasheed, H., Cho, Y., Chittoor, G., Lind, P. A., Palviainen, T., van der Zee, M. D., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.03.05.433935 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationWu, Y., Zhong, X., Lin, Y., Zhao, Z., Chen, J. C., Zheng, B., Li, J. J., Fletcher, J. M., & Lu, Q. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2023184118 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Capalbo, A., de Wert, G. M. W. R., Mertes, H., Klausner, L., Coonen, E., Spinella, F., de Velde, H. V., Viville, S., Sermon, K., Vermeulen, N., et al. (2024) · Human Reproduction Update · doi:10.1093/humupd/dmae012 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Interpreting Behavior Genetic Models: Seven Developmental Processes to Understand
Briley, D., Livengood, J., Derringer, J., Tucker-Drob, E., Fraley, R. C., & Roberts, B. (2018) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-018-9939-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Phenotypic covariance across the entire spectrum of relatedness for 86 billion pairs of individuals
Kemper, K. E., Yengo, L., Zheng, Z., Abdellaoui, A., Keller, M. C., Goddard, M. E., Wray, N. R., Yang, J., & Visscher, P. M. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21283-4 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationFamily-GWAS reveals effects of environment and mating on genetic associations
Tan, T., Jayashankar, H., Guan, J., Nehzati, S. M., Mir, M., Bennett, M., Agerbo, E., Ahlskog, R., de Andrade Anapaz, V. P., Benonisdottir, S., et al. (2024) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.01.24314703 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationNiarchou, M., Byrne, E. M., Trzaskowski, M., Sidorenko, J., Kemper, K. E., McGrath, J. J., O’Donovan, M. C., Owen, M. J., & Wray, N. R. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-0688-y · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationExtremely sparse models of linkage disequilibrium in ancestrally diverse association studies
Nowbandegani, P. S., Wohns, A., Ballard, J. L., Lander, E., Bloemendal, A., Neale, B., & O'Connor, L. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1038/s41588-023-01487-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The Shadow of Peasant Past: Seven Generations of Inequality Persistence in Northern Sweden
Hällsten, M., & Kolk, M. (2023) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/724835 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Estimation and mapping of the missing heritability of human phenotypes
Wainschtein, P., Zhang, Y., Schwartzentruber, J., Kassam, I., Sidorenko, J., Fiziev, P. P., Wang, H., McRae, J. F., Border, R., Zaitlen, N., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09720-6 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationHowe, L. J., Rasheed, H., Jones, P. R., Boomsma, D. I., Evans, D. M., Giannelis, A., Hayward, C., Hopper, J. L., Hughes, A., Lahtinen, H., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyad079 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
The importance of family-based sampling for biobanks
Davies, N. M., Hemani, G., Neiderhiser, J. M., Martin, H. C., Mills, M. C., Visscher, P. M., Yengo, L., Young, A. I., & Keller, M. C. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07721-5 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationSunde, H. F., Eftedal, N. H., Cheesman, R., Corfield, E. C., Kleppestø, T. H., Seierstad, A., Ystrøm, E., Eilertsen, E. M., & Torvik, F. A. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46939-9 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Evidence of Assortative Mating in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Connolly, S., Anney, R., Gallagher, L., & Heron, E. A. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.014 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Estimation of indirect genetic effects and heritability under assortative mating
Young, A. S. (2023) · doi:10.1101/2023.07.10.548458 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A model and test for coordinated polygenic epistasis in complex traits
Sheppard, B. K., Rappoport, N., Loh, P., Sanders, S., Zaitlen, N., & Dahl, A. W. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1922305118 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Rare genetic variants explain missing heritability in smoking
Jang, S.-K., Evans, L. M., Fialkowski, A., Arnett, D. K., Ashley‐Koch, A. E., Barnes, K. C., Becker, D. M., Bis, J. C., Blangero, J., Bleecker, E. R., et al. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01408-5 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationSmolen, C., Jensen, M., Dyer, L. M., Pizzo, L., Tyryshkina, A., Banerjee, D., Rohan, L., Huber, E., Khattabi, L. E., Prontera, P., et al. (2023) · The American Journal of Human Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2023.10.015 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Genetic Nature or Genetic Nurture? Quantifying Bias in Analyses Using Polygenic ScoresPreprint
Trejo, S., & Domingue, B. W. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/524850 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Minică, C. C., Boomsma, D. I., Dolan, C. V., de Geus, E., & Neale, M. C. (2020) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyaa013 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Familial Influences on Neuroticism and Education in the UK Biobank
Cheesman, R., Coleman, J. R. I., Rayner, C., Purves, K. L., Morneau‐Vaillancourt, G., Glanville, K. P., Choi, S. W., Breen, G. D., & Eley, T. C. (2019) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-019-09984-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Celebrating a Century of Research in Behavioral Genetics
Plomin, R. (2023) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-023-10132-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Population-specific polygenic risk scores for people of Han Chinese ancestry
Chen, H., Chen, C.-H., Hou, M., Fu, Y., Li, L., Chou, C.-Y., Yeh, E., Tsai, M.-F., Chen, C.-H., Yang, H., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09350-y · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Why do we pick similar mates, or do we?
Versluys, T. M. M., Mas-Sandoval, À., Flintham, E. O., & Savolainen, V. (2021) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2021.0463 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Socio-economic status is a social construct with heritable components and genetic consequences
Abdellaoui, A., Martin, H. C., Kolk, M., Rutherford, A. D., Muthukrishna, M., Tropf, F. C., Mills, M. C., Zietsch, B. P., Verweij, K. J. H., & Visscher, P. M. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02150-4 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationWolfram, T., & Morris, D. M. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00173-y · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Clarke, T., Adams, M. J., Howard, D. M., Xia, C., Davies, G., Hayward, C., Campbell, A. I., Padmanabhan, S., Smith, B. H., Murray, A. D., et al. (2019) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0607-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Young, A. S. (2024) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3002568 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Genetic architecture reconciles linkage and association studies of complex traits
Sidorenko, J., Couvy‐Duchesne, B., Kemper, K. E., Moen, G.-H., Bhatta, L., Åsvold, B. O., Mägi, R., Ani, A., Wang, R., Nolte, I. M., et al. (2024) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01940-2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationScaling the discrete-time Wright–Fisher model to biobank-scale datasets
Spence, J. P., Zeng, T., Mostafavi, H., & Pritchard, J. K. (2023) · Genetics · doi:10.1093/genetics/iyad168 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Nivard, M. G., Belsky, D. W., Harden, K. P., Baier, T., Andreassen, O. A., Ystrøm, E., van Bergen, E., & Lyngstad, T. H. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bhpm5 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Social-Science Genomics: Progress, Challenges, and Future Directions
Benjamin, D., Cesarini, D., Turley, P., & Young, A. S. (2024) · doi:10.3386/w32404 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationPopulation phenomena inflate genetic associations of complex social traits
Morris, T. T., Davies, N. M., Hemani, G., & Smith, G. D. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aay0328 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Genetic footprints of assortative mating in the Japanese population
Yamamoto, K., Sonehara, K., Namba, S., Konuma, T., Masuko, H., Miyawaki, S., The BioBank Japan Project, Kamatani, Y., Hizawa, N., Ozono, K., et al. (2022) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01438-z · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationBURT, C. H. (2024) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.1177/00811750241236482 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Negm, S., & Veller, C. (2026) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1012035 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Assortative mating and within-spouse pair comparisons
Howe, L. J., Battram, T., Morris, T., Hartwig, F. P., Hemani, G., Davies, N. M., & Smith, G. D. (2021) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1009883 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Why are education, socioeconomic position and intelligence genetically correlated?Preprint
Morris, T., Davies, N. M., Hemani, G., & Smith, G. D. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/630426 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Richards, G., Baron‐Cohen, S., Warrier, V., Mellor, B., Davies, J., Gee, L., & Galvin, J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11592-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Partner choice, confounding and trait convergence all contribute to phenotypic partner similarity
Sjaarda, J., & Kutalik, Z. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01500-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Genotyping, sequencing and analysis of 140,000 adults from the Mexico City Prospective StudyPreprint
Ziyatdinov, A., Torres, J., Alegre-Díaz, J., Backman, J., Mbatchou, J. S., Turner, M., Gaynor, S. M., Joseph, T., Zou, Y., Liu, D., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.26.495014 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Uffelmann, E., Danielle Posthuma, B., & Peyrot, W. J. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-29428-9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
How robust are cross-population signatures of polygenic adaptation in humans?
Refoyo-Martínez, A., Liu, S. M., Jørgensen, A. M., Jin, X., Albrechtsen, A., Martin, A. R., & Racimo, F. (2021) · Peer Community Journal · doi:10.24072/pcjournal.35 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cabrera‐Mendoza, B., Wendt, F. R., Pathak, G. A., Yengo, L., & Polimanti, R. A. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01828-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationKim, R., Lippert, A. M., Wedow, R., Jimenez, M. P., & Subramanian, S. V. (2020) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaa058 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Genetic assortative mating for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
Jefsen, O. H., Nudel, R., Wang, Y., Bybjerg‐Grauholm, J., Hemager, N., Christiani, C. J., Burton, B. K., Spang, K. S., Ellersgaard, D., Gantriis, D. L., et al. (2022) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2304 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Sunde, H. F., Eilertsen, E. M., & Torvik, F. A. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60483-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Axelrud, L. K., Hoffmann, M. S., Vosberg, D. E., Santoro, M. L., Pan, P. M., Gadelha, A., Belangero, S. I., Miguel, E. C., Shin, J., Thapar, A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13708 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationCausal inference methods for intergenerational research using observational data.
Frach, L., Jami, E. S., McAdams, T. A., Dudbridge, F., & Pingault, J. (2023) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000419 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Leigh, R. J., Corrigan, A., Murphy, R. A., Taylor-Pickard, J. A., Moran, C. A., & Walsh, F. (2024) · Animal Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s42523-024-00295-7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A Litmus Test for Confounding in Polygenic ScoresPreprint
Smith, S. P., Smith, O. S., Peng, D., Miao, X., Mostafavi, H., Berg, J. J., Edge, M. D., & Harpak, A. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.01.635985 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Genetic nurture: estimating the direct genetic effects of pediatric anthropometric traits
Ghatan, S., de Vries, J., Pingault, J., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Cecil, C. A. M., Felix, J. F., Rivadeneira, F., & Medina‐Gómez, C. (2025) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddaf117 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Gorelik, A. J., Paul, S. E., Miller, A. P., Baranger, D. A. A., Lin, S., Zhang, W., Elsayed, N. M., Modi, H., Addala, P., Bijsterbosch, J. D., et al. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724002174 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zeng, J., Xue, A., Jiang, L., Lloyd‐Jones, L. R., Wu, Y., Wang, H., Zheng, Z., Yengo, L., Kemper, K. E., Goddard, M. E., et al. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/752527 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationThe contribution of gametic phase disequilibrium to the heritability of complex traits
Zhang, Y., Sakaue, S., Morris, S., Graff, M., The Biobank Japan Project, Okada, Y., Yamamoto, K., Chen, Z., Li, L., Keller, M. C., et al. (2025) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-025-02192-4 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationNot by Selection Alone: Expanding the Scope of Gene‐Culture Coevolution
Kasser, S. M., Laland, K. N., Fortunato, L., & Feldman, M. W. (2025) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.70007 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Assortative mating on complex traits revisited: Double first cousins and the X-chromosome
Yengo, L., & Visscher, P. M. (2018) · Theoretical Population Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tpb.2018.09.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationA General Approach to Adjusting Genetic Studies for Assortative MatingPreprint
Bilghese, M., Manansala, R., Jaishankar, D., Jala, J., Benjamin, D. J., Kimball, M., Auer, P. L., Livermore, M. A., & Turley, P. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.01.555983 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationNudel, R., HOUGAARD, D. M., Werge, T. M., & Benros, M. E. (2023) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268823000687 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Confounding fuels misinterpretation in human genetics
Benning, J. W., Carlson, J., Smith, O. S., Shaw, R. G., & Harpak, A. (2025) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.1615 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wolfram, T., & Morris, D. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/m4eqv · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Smolen, C., Jensen, M., Dyer, L. M., Pizzo, L., Tyryshkina, A., Banerjee, D., Rohan, L., Huber, E., Khattabi, L. E., Prontera, P., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.05.18.23290169 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Dissecting the contribution of common variants to risk of rare neurodevelopmental conditionsPreprint
Huang, Q. Q., Wigdor, E. M., Campbell, P. H., Malawsky, D. S., Samocha, K. E., Chundru, V. K., Danecek, P., Lindsay, S., Marchant, T., Koko, M., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.03.05.24303772 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Partners in Health: Investigating Social Genetic Effects Among Married and Cohabiting Couples
Otten, K., & Mandemakers, J. J. (2023) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-023-10147-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Use of genetic correlations to examine selection bias
Shapland, C. Y., Gkatzionis, A., Hemani, G., & Tilling, K. M. (2024) · Genetic Epidemiology · doi:10.1002/gepi.22584 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lu, T., Zhang, W., Hamilton, F., Butler‐Laporte, G., Timpson, N. J., Smith, G. D., & Richards, J. B. (2025) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf305 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Valdes, V., Craighead, L. W., Nelson, C. A., & Enlow, M. B. (2024) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12628 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Assortative Mating, Autistic Traits, Empathizing, and SystemizingPreprint
Richards, G., Baron‐Cohen, S., Stokes, H., Warrier, V., Mellor, B., Winspear, E., Davies, J., Gee, L., & Galvin, J. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.28.358895 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Genetic basis of partner choicePreprint
Zheng, Q., van Alten, S., Lyngstad, T. H., Ciscato, E., Sun, Z., Miao, J., Wu, Y., Dorn, S., Zheng, B., Havdahl, A., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.03.636375 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationBorder, R., & Malik, O. A. (2023) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/s12859-023-05442-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
D’Urso, S., Wootton, R. E., Ask, H., Nunes, C. B., Andreassen, O. A., Hwang, L., Moen, G.-H., Evans, D. M., & Havdahl, A. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724002216 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sosa, R. (2022) · Adaptive Behavior · doi:10.1177/10597123221097451 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The 20-year documentary of genetic nurturing: The realization of Harris’s insight
Grigorenko, E. L. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101151 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wray, N. R., & Yengo, L. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.06.007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Yengo, L., Robinson, M. R., Keller, M. C., Kemper, K. E., Yang, Y., Trzaskowski, M., Gratten, J., Turley, P., Cesarini, D., Benjamin, D. J., Wray, N. R., Goddard, M. E., Yang, J., & Visscher, P. M.
- Affiliations
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Translational Research Institute (AU)
- Broad Institute (US)
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Visscher, Peter M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Human Behaviour
- Published
- 2018-11-26
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 948-954
- ISSN
- 2397-3374 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6705135
- OpenAlex
- W2952585581
- Cited by
- 148
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 6.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Human Behaviour (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- IRIS (submittedVersion)
- SERVAL (Université de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Medical Research Council (1107258, 1113400, 1078037, 1078901, 1127440, 1103418)
- Australian Research Council (DP160103860, DP160102400, DP130102666, 1113400)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (1113400, 1078901, 1127440, 1107258, 1078037, 1103418)
- National Institute on Aging (RC2AG036607, R56AG042568, R01AG042568)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH100141)
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (P01GM099568)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and phenotypic traits in livestock
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Keywords
- assortative mating, mate choice, human genome, single nucleotide polymorphisms, population stratification, height, educational attainment, complex traits, genome organization
- MeSH terms
- Alleles, Body Height, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Marriage, Genome, Human, Quantitative Trait, Heritable, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, White People
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
