Quantum phases of matter on a 256-atom programmable quantum simulator
Open accessAbstract
Motivated by far-reaching applications ranging from quantum simulations of complex processes in physics and chemistry to quantum information processing1, a broad effort is currently underway to build large-scale programmable quantum systems. Such systems provide insights into strongly correlated quantum matter2–6, while at the same time enabling new methods for computation7–10 and metrology11. Here we demonstrate a programmable quantum simulator based on deterministically prepared two-dimensional arrays of neutral atoms, featuring strong interactions controlled by coherent atomic excitation into Rydberg states12. Using this approach, we realize a quantum spin model with tunable interactions for system sizes ranging from 64 to 256 qubits. We benchmark the system by characterizing high-fidelity antiferromagnetically ordered states and demonstrating quantum critical dynamics consistent with an Ising quantum phase transition in (2 + 1) dimensions13. We then create and study several new quantum phases that arise from the interplay between interactions and coherent laser excitation14, experimentally map the phase diagram and investigate the role of quantum fluctuations. Offering a new lens into the study of complex quantum matter, these observations pave the way for investigations of exotic quantum phases, non-equilibrium entanglement dynamics and hardware-efficient realization of quantum algorithms. A programmable quantum simulator with 256 qubits is created using neutral atoms in two-dimensional optical tweezer arrays, demonstrating a quantum phase transition and revealing new quantum phases of matter.
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The lifetime of an atom in a microtrap is mostly limited by residual vacuum pressure and typically lies in the range of 10-20 s.
“The lifetime of an atom in such a microtrap is mostly limited by the residual vacuum pressure and typically lies in the range of 10-20 s [29,30].”
From Neutral atom quantum computing hardware: performance and end-user perspective (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
Trap lifetime for neutral atom quantum computers is 10-60 s today, and up to 6000 s with a cryostat.
“10-60 s [22, 23, 29, 30] (up to 6000 s with cryostat [39])”
From Neutral atom quantum computing hardware: performance and end-user perspective (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
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Tunable light-induced dipole-dipole interaction between optically levitated nanoparticles
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BackgroundBeyond-classical computation in quantum simulation
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Self-citationNeutral atom quantum computing hardware: performance and end-user perspective
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Quantum phase transition dynamics in the two-dimensional transverse-field Ising model
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InfluentialError budgeting for a controlled-phase gate with strontium-88 Rydberg atoms
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Localized magnetic field in the O(N) model
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Rydberg quantum wires for maximum independent set problems
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Quantum algorithms for quantum dynamics
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Defect-Free Arbitrary-Geometry Assembly of Mixed-Species Atom Arrays
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Continuous operation of large-scale atom arrays in optical lattices
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Entanglement generation in (1+1)D QED scattering processes
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Single Atoms with 6000-Second Trapping Lifetimes in Optical-Tweezer Arrays at Cryogenic Temperatures
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Carbon Nanotube Devices for Quantum Technology
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Pulser: An open-source package for the design of pulse sequences in programmable neutral-atom arrays
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Ultracold chemistry as a testbed for few-body physics
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“Trapped ions 8 and Rydberg atoms 9,10 have been shown to have potential as platforms for quantum computing.”
From architectures to applications: a review of neural quantum states
Lange, H., de Walle, A. V., Abedinnia, A., & Bohrdt, A. (2024) · Quantum Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/2058-9565/ad7168 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Observation of string breaking on a (2 + 1)D Rydberg quantum simulator
González-Cuadra, D., Hamdan, M., Zache, T. V., Braverman, B., Kornjača, M., Lukin, A., Cantu, S., Liu, F., Wang, S.-T., Keesling, A., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09051-6 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationShao, X., Su, S., Li, L., Nath, R., Wu, J., & Li, W. (2024) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0211071 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Benchmarking highly entangled states on a 60-atom analogue quantum simulator
Shaw, A. L., Chen, Z., Choi, J., Mark, D. K., Scholl, P., Finkelstein, R., Elben, A., Choi, S., & Endres, M. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07173-x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationNon-Abelian Floquet Spin Liquids in a Digital Rydberg Simulator
Kalinowski, M., Maskara, N., & Lukin, M. D. (2023) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.13.031008 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Ising [7, 9] and XXZ [34] Hamiltonians, using programmable, fixed atom geometry.”
MethodSelf-citationQuantum coarsening and collective dynamics on a programmable simulator
Manovitz, T., Li, S. H., Ebadi, S., Samajdar, R., Geim, A. A., Evered, S. J., Bluvstein, D., Zhou, H., Köylüoğlu, N. U., Feldmeier, J., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-024-08353-5 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“11,40.”
InfluentialSelf-citationSymmetries and conserved quantities of boundary time crystals in generalized spin models
Piccitto, G., Wauters, M. M., Nori, F., & Shammah, N. (2021) · Physical review. B./Physical review. B · doi:10.1103/physrevb.104.014307 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Emergent Z 2 Gauge Theories and Topological Excitations in Rydberg Atom Arrays
Samajdar, R., Joshi, D. G., Teng, Y., & Subir Sachdev, A. (2023) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.130.043601 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationHigh-Fidelity Detection of Large-Scale Atom Arrays in an Optical Lattice.
Tao, R., Ammenwerth, M., Gyger, F., Bloch, I., & Zeiher, J. (2023) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.133.013401 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…the power-intensive imaging step from preparation and physics in optical tweezer arrays, with potential applications in quantum simulation of Ising models [34, 35, 49, 50], lattice gauge theories [51], quantum chemistry [52], or quantum-enhanced metrology [15, 40, 53, 54] in scalable ensembles.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialQuantum Variational Learning of the Entanglement Hamiltonian
Kokail, C., Sundar, B., Zache, T. V., Elben, A., Vermersch, B., Dalmonte, M., van Bijnen, R., & Zoller, P. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.127.170501 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Classical shadows for quantum process tomography on near-term quantum computers
Levy, R., Luo, D., & Clark, B. K. (2024) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.6.013029 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Scalable all-optical cold damping of levitated nanoparticles
Vijayan, J., Zhang, Z., Piotrowski, J., Windey, D., van der Laan, F., Frimmer, M., & Novotný, L. (2022) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41565-022-01254-6 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Analytic approaches to periodically driven closed quantum systems: methods and applications
Sen, A., Sen, D., & Sengupta, K. (2021) · Journal of Physics Condensed Matter · doi:10.1088/1361-648x/ac1b61 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
2023 roadmap for materials for quantum technologies
Becher, C., Gao, W., Kar, S., Marciniak, C. D., Monz, T., Bartholomew, J. G., Goldner, P., Loh, H., Marcellina, E., Goh, K. E. J., et al. (2022) · Materials for Quantum Technology · doi:10.1088/2633-4356/aca3f2 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Experimental demonstration of logical magic state distillation
Rodriguez, P. S., Robinson, J. M., Jepsen, N., He, Z., Duckering, C., Zhao, C., Wu, K.-H., Campo, J., Bagnall, K. R., Kwon, M., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09367-3 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The system is based on neutral 87 Rb atoms trapped in reconfigurable optical tweezers [49–52].”
Self-citation
- Authors
- Ebadi, S., Wang, T. T., Levine, H., Keesling, A., Semeghini, G., Omran, A., Bluvstein, D., Samajdar, R., Pichler, H., Ho, W. W., Choi, S., Sachdev, S., Greiner, M., Vuletić, V., & Lukin, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lukin, Mikhail D.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2021-07-07
- Volume
- 595
- Issue
- 7866
- Pages
- 227-232
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W3117469420
- Semantic Scholar
- 8466edf6fcdb2b524b0aec25107963c04f785de5
- Cited by
- 995
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 126 · 2025: 232 · 2024: 215 · 2023: 192 · 2022: 191 · 2021: 39
- FWCI
- 69.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Energy (DESC0021013, DESC0019030)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Cold Atom Physics and Bose-Einstein Condensates
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum many-body systems
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Keywords
- Rydberg atoms, optical tweezer arrays, neutral atom arrays, quantum spin systems, antiferromagnetic ordering, quantum critical dynamics, quantum phase diagram, quantum fluctuations, strongly correlated quantum matter
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