Net energy of cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass
Open accessAbstract
Perennial herbaceous plants such as switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.) are being evaluated as cellulosic bioenergy crops. Two major concerns have been the net energy efficiency and economic feasibility of switchgrass and similar crops. All previous energy analyses have been based on data from research plots (<5 m 2 ) and estimated inputs. We managed switchgrass as a biomass energy crop in field trials of 3–9 ha (1 ha = 10,000 m 2 ) on marginal cropland on 10 farms across a wide precipitation and temperature gradient in the midcontinental U.S. to determine net energy and economic costs based on known farm inputs and harvested yields. In this report, we summarize the agricultural energy input costs, biomass yield, estimated ethanol output, greenhouse gas emissions, and net energy results. Annual biomass yields of established fields averaged 5.2 -11.1 Mg·ha −1 with a resulting average estimated net energy yield (NEY) of 60 GJ·ha −1 ·y −1 . Switchgrass produced 540% more renewable than nonrenewable energy consumed. Switchgrass monocultures managed for high yield produced 93% more biomass yield and an equivalent estimated NEY than previous estimates from human-made prairies that received low agricultural inputs. Estimated average greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from cellulosic ethanol derived from switchgrass were 94% lower than estimated GHG from gasoline. This is a baseline study that represents the genetic material and agronomic technology available for switchgrass production in 2000 and 2001, when the fields were planted. Improved genetics and agronomics may further enhance energy sustainability and biofuel yield of switchgrass.
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Switchgrass grown in Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota had biomass yields ranging from 5.2 to 11.2 Mg ha-1 averaged over the third to fifth harvest years.
“Switchgrass grown in Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota had biomass yields ranging from 5.2 to 11.2 Mg ha -1 averaged over the third to fifth harvest years [17].”
From Switchgrass Biofuel Production on Reclaimed Surface Mines: I. Soil Quality and Dry Matter Yield (2016) · cites this paper as [17]
The Methods describe switchgrass fields in Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota, and the NEV section reports average annual biomass yields of 5.2–11.1 Mg ha⁻¹ for established fields. The cited copy does not give the claimed upper value of 11.2 or explicitly identify that range as an average over the third through fifth harvest years. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn other studies, switchgrass dry matter yields on marginal croplands varied from 5.0 to 10.0 Mg ha-1 annually.
“In other studies, switchgrass dry matter (DM) yields on marginal croplands varied from 5.0 to 10.0 Mg ha -1 annually.”
From Switchgrass Biofuel Production on Reclaimed Surface Mines: I. Soil Quality and Dry Matter Yield (2016) · cites this paper as [17]
The NEV section reports annual biomass yields of 5.2–11.1 Mg ha⁻¹ for established switchgrass fields, and the Methods describe the fields as marginal cropland. This supports the setting and approximate lower bound, but the claimed upper bound of 10.0 Mg ha⁻¹ understates the reported 11.1. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSchmer et al. (2008) found switchgrass yields of 5200 to 11,100 kg/ha on 10 farms of marginal cropland in the midwestern United States.
“Schmer et al. (2008) found switchgrass yields of 5200 to 11,100 kg ha -1 on 10 farms of marginal cropland in the midwestern United States.”
From Switchgrass Yield on Reclaimed Surface Mines for Bioenergy Production (2013) · cites this paper as Schmer et al., 2008
Schmer et al. measured annual average biomass yields of 5.2 to 11.1 Mg ha-1 of switchgrass when managed as a biomass energy crop on marginal cropland in the northern Great Plains, USA.
“Schmer et al. [17] measured annual average biomass yields of 5.2 to 11.1 Mg ha -1 of switchgrass when managed as a biomass energy crop on marginal cropland in the northern Great Plains, USA.”
From Switchgrass Biofuel Production on Reclaimed Surface Mines: I. Soil Quality and Dry Matter Yield (2016) · cites this paper as [17]
Results from life-cycle assessments of switchgrass grown for bioenergy have been mixed, due in large part to assigned net greenhouse gas emissions and assumptions made in indirect land conversion costs.
“Results from life-cycle assessments (LCAs) of switchgrass grown for bioenergy, however, have been mixed [1,8,32,33], due in large part to the assigned net GHG emissions associated with switchgrass production and assumptions made in indirect land conversion costs.”
From Soil Carbon Storage by Switchgrass Grown for Bioenergy (2008) · cites this paper as [32]
Weather conditions as well as deviations from recommended management practices contributed to variation in biomass yield across sites.
“Weather conditions as well as deviations from recommended management practices contributed to variation in biomass yield across sites [32].”
From Soil Carbon Storage by Switchgrass Grown for Bioenergy (2008) · cites this paper as [32]
Accrual rates of soil organic carbon under switchgrass contribute significantly to its potential to provide a favorable net greenhouse gas balance.
“Accrual rates of SOC under switchgrass contribute significantly to its potential to provide a favorable net GHG balance [8,32].”
From Soil Carbon Storage by Switchgrass Grown for Bioenergy (2008) · cites this paper as [32]
Machine harvested yields were verified by hand-clipped, dried, and weighed aboveground biomass from 1.1 m2 quadrants at 16 locations within each field.
“To verify machine harvested yields, aboveground biomass was hand-clipped, dried, and weighed from 1.1 m 2 quadrants at 16 locations within each field [32].”
From Soil Carbon Storage by Switchgrass Grown for Bioenergy (2008) · cites this paper as [32]
Previous life-cycle assessments including switchgrass production for biomass energy have utilized carbon offset rates four- to 11-fold lower than the carbon sequestration rates observed in this study.
“Previous LCAs including switchgrass production for biomass energy have utilized C offset rates four-to 11-fold lower than the C sequestration rates observed in this study [1,32,33].”
From Soil Carbon Storage by Switchgrass Grown for Bioenergy (2008) · cites this paper as [32]
Recent research has found that starch- and sugar-based bioenergy sources have drawbacks and has turned attention to ligno-cellulosic feedstocks.
“Recent research has found that these bioenergy sources have their drawbacks [3,4] and turned attention to the use of ligno-cellulosic feedstocks, such as perennial grasses and short rotation woody crops for bioenergy production [5,6].”
From The effect of bioenergy expansion: food, energy, and environment (2014) · cites this paper as [5]
The US produces enough lignocellulosic feedstock today to substitute 30% of their liquid transport fuels with biofuels.
“It has been estimated that the US produces enough lignocellulosic feedstock today to substitute 30% of their liquid transport fuels with biofuels.4”
From Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass with ionic liquids (2013) · cites this paper as [4]
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialField-scale soil property changes under switchgrass managed for bioenergy
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Self-citationJarchow, M. E., Liebman, M., Dhungel, S., Dietzel, R., Sundberg, D., Anex, R. P., Thompson, M. L., & Chua, T. (2015) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12096 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Eichelmann, E., Wagner-Riddle, C., Warland, J., Deen, B., & Voroney, P. (2016) · Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment · doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.07.007 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
LEE, D., OWENS, V. N., BOE, A., & KOO, B. (2009) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/j.1757-1707.2009.01008.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Spatial forecasting of switchgrass productivity under current and future climate change scenarios
Behrman, K. D., Kiniry, J. R., Winchell, M., Juenger, T. E., & Keitt, T. H. (2013) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/12-0436.1 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Kim, H. K., Parajuli, P. B., & Filip To, S. D. (2013) · Agricultural and Forest Meteorology · doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.10.007 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Aboveground productivity and soil carbon storage of biofuel crops in<scp>O</scp>hio
Bonin, C. L., & Lal, R. (2014) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12041 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Long‐Term Biomass Yield and Species Composition in Native Perennial Bioenergy Cropping Systems
Jungers, J. M., Clark, A. T., Betts, K., Mangan, M. E., Sheaffer, C. C., & Wyse, D. L. (2015) · Agronomy Journal · doi:10.2134/agronj15.0014 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Switchgrass Yield on Reclaimed Surface Mines for Bioenergy Production
Marra, M., Keene, T., Skousen, J., & Griggs, T. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Quality · doi:10.2134/jeq2012.0453 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Growing season greenhouse gas flux from switchgrass in the northern great plains
Schmer, M. R., Liebig, M. A., Hendrickson, J. R., Tanaka, D. L., & Phillips, R. L. (2012) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.05.026 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationThe potential for bioenergy crops to contribute to meeting GB heat and electricity demands
Wang, S., Hastings, A., Wang, S., Sunnenberg, G., Tallis, M. J., Casella, E., Taylor, S., Alexander, P., Cisowska, I., Lovett, A., et al. (2014) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12123 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Switchgrass Biofuel Production on Reclaimed Surface Mines: I. Soil Quality and Dry Matter Yield
Brown, C., Griggs, T., Keene, T., Marra, M., & Skousen, J. (2016) · BioEnergy Research · doi:10.1007/s12155-015-9658-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Sorghum and switchgrass as biofuel feedstocks on marginal lands in Northern China
Fu, H. M., Meng, F. Y., Molatudi, R. L., & Zhang, B. G. (2016) · BioEnergy Research · doi:10.1007/s12155-015-9704-0 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Biomass feedstocks for advanced biofuels: Sustainability and supply chain management
Umakanth, A. V., Datta, A., Reddy, B. S., & Bardhan, S. (2022) · Advanced Biofuel Technologies · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-88427-3.00023-4 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Carbon dioxide exchange dynamics over a mature switchgrass stand
Eichelmann, E., Wagner‐Riddle, C., Warland, J., Deen, B., & Voroney, P. (2016) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.12259 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Miscanthus agronomy and bioenergy feedstock potential on minesoils.
Ussiri, D. A. N., & Lal, R. (2014) · Biofuels · doi:10.1080/17597269.2015.1024388 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
RECLAMATION OF MINED LAND WITH SWITCHGRASS, MISCANTHUS, AND ARUNDO FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
West Virginia University, M. W. 2., Skousen, J., Keene, T., Marra, M., & Gutta, B. (2013) · Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation · doi:10.21000/jasmr13010177 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Global warming intensity of biofuel derived from switchgrass grown on marginal land in Michigan
Kim, S., Dale, B. E., Martinez‐Feria, R., Basso, B., Thelen, K., Maravelias, C. T., Landis, D., Lark, T. J., & Robertson, G. P. (2023) · GCB Bioenergy · doi:10.1111/gcbb.13024 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…efforts are implicitly based on a static approach, which is based on average (or time-independent) values for foreground and background systems (Adler et al., 2007; Dwivedi et al., 2015; Kim & Dale, 2015; Kim et al., 2019, 2020; Schmer et al., 2008, 2014; Tao, Tan, et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2012).”
BackgroundESTABLISHMENT AND GROWTH OF SWITCHGRASS AND OTHER BIOMASS CROPS ON SURFACE MINES
West Virginia University, W. 2., Skousen, J., & Brown, C. (2014) · Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation · doi:10.21000/jasmr14010136 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Brown, C., Griggs, T., Holaskova, I., & Skousen, J. (2016) · BioEnergy Research · doi:10.1007/s12155-015-9657-3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Conceptual process design and -simulation of microalgae oil -conversion to aviation fuel
Bwapwa, J. K., Anandraj, A., & Trois, C. (2018) · Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining · doi:10.1002/bbb.1890 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Pannu, M. W., Meinhardt, K. A., Bertagnolli, A., Fransen, S. C., Stahl, D. A., & Strand, S. E. (2019) · Environmental Microbiology Reports · doi:10.1111/1758-2229.12790 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
MINE SOIL RECLAMATION WITH SWITCHGRASS FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
Keene, T., & Skousen, J. (2010) · Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation · doi:10.21000/jasmr10010489 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
- Authors
- Schmer, M. R., Vogel, K. P., Mitchell, R. B., & Perrin, R. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2008-01-15
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 464-469
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC2206559
- OpenAlex
- W2036849472
- Cited by
- 1,067
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 91 · 2014: 98 · 2013: 121 · 2012: 102
- FWCI
- 192.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lincoln (University of Nebraska) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Energy
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln
- Agricultural Research Service
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Bioenergy crop production and management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Energy, Environment, Agriculture Analysis
- Keywords
- switchgrass, cellulosic ethanol, net energy yield, energy crops, biomass yield, greenhouse gas emissions, marginal cropland, perennial grasses, biofuel economics
- MeSH terms
- Agriculture, Air Pollutants, Ethanol, Cellulose, Conservation of Energy Resources, Conservation of Natural Resources, Energy-Generating Resources, Environment, Gasoline, Geography, Panicum, Midwestern United States, Greenhouse Effect, Biomass, Crops, Agricultural
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