The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 43 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop
Open accessAbstract
Addiction involves powerful motivation to engage in an activity repeatedly to an extent that is harmful often accompanied by impaired capacity for self-control. To effectively combat addiction to cigarettes requires an understanding that there are several mechanisms underlying it. The PRIME Theory of motivation aims to provide a model that can encapsulate these mechanisms. It recognises that evolution has led to multiple levels of motivation from basic impulses and inhibitions, through 'motives' (feelings of want and need), to 'evaluations' (beliefs about what is good or bad), and plans (intentions regarding future actions). Self-control involves self-consciously generating motives from evaluations or plans; it requires and depletes mental energy. Nicotine from cigarettes generates the motivation to smoke and undermines self-control by interacting with all of the level of motivation. It: creates stimulus-impulse associations resulting in cue-driven urges; impairs inhibitory control; gives enjoyment resulting in 'wanting' to smoke; it leads to 'nicotine hunger', withdrawal symptoms and beliefs about benefits of smoking (e.g. stress relief) all of which can result in a 'need' to smoke. Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke (because of enjoyment) is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and adverse mood and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse. Combating cigarette addiction requires attention to all of these factors.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
West argues that cigarette addiction arises from multiple motivational mechanisms in PRIME Theory—impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, plans, and self-control—and that cessation requires addressing all of them. It distinguishes wanting to smoke for enjoyment, which deters quit attempts, from cue-driven urges, nicotine hunger, withdrawal, and beliefs about smoking benefits, which drive relapse.
Key findings
- PRIME Theory proposes multiple levels of motivation: responses, impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, and plans; higher levels must operate through lower ones, and self-control requires and depletes mental energy.
- Nicotine acts at all levels: it creates stimulus-impulse associations and cue-driven urges, impairs inhibitory control during withdrawal, produces enjoyment and “wanting” to smoke, and causes “nicotine hunger,” withdrawal symptoms, and beliefs about benefits such as stress relief that can generate a “need” to smoke.
- Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke because of enjoyment is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger, adverse mood, and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse.
- In approximately half of cases where smokers form a rule to stop, there is no pre-planning; using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper presenting the PRIME Theory of motivation and applying it to cigarette addiction and smoking cessation; no primary empirical study is reported.
- Draws on cited literature and clinical experience to propose principles for clinical interventions, including a 4-state model of smoking cessation and the SNAP model.
- No sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
Limitations
- The paper states no limitations. Evident: it is a narrative theoretical synthesis, not a systematic review or empirical test, and some cited evidence is described as emerging or anecdotal.
- Evident: the author reports receiving funds for research and consultancy from companies that develop and manufacture smoking cessation medications, a potential conflict of interest.
- Evident: “mental energy” is acknowledged as lacking a known physiological basis and can currently be defined only in terms of subjective experience and behavioral correlates.
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Claims the paper makes
35 Not checked yet · 23 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
In the paper
“However, it is clear that much behaviour is driven by habit or instinct in which one just responds without thinking about the consequences (3)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“There is also emerging evidence that during nicotine withdrawal smokers have impaired functioning of the low-level brain mechanisms that underlie inhibition (13).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Moreover, it is apparent that we sometimes do things because we planned to do them or have rules about them and do not have to weigh up the costs and benefits each time (3).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Dopamine release in the core appears to act to generate stimulus-impulse associations (10,11).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Thus nicotine taps directly into one of the most basic levels of human motivation generating the impulse to smoke in the presence of smoking cues (12).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“It proposes that evolution has led to a multi-level motivational system in which new, higher levels of flexibility have been added on to older ones but have to work through the latter to influence behaviour.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] West R, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Our capacity and skills at achieving self-regulation based on rules we impose on ourselves is a major factor in achieving life goals (4).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“and often our actions are driven by feelings of desire rather than judgements about what would be the best option (3).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus smokers can feel urges to smoke in the presence of smoking cues that seem to arise without any obvious reason or anticipation of pleasure from smoking.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in many parts of the brain but of particular interest is the ventral tegmental area (7,8).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- Probably not a substantial claim. 7
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“There is evidence emerging that wanting to smoke (enjoyment of smoking) deters quit attempts while needing to smoke (anticipated relief from nicotine hunger) and cue driven impulses to smoke (experienced as 'urges') lead to relapse after the quit attempt has been started (18,24).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] source
- Partly supportedcites [24] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion (page not supplied) report that smoking for enjoyment was associated with fewer quit attempts, while smoking for stress management was associated with reduced quit success among those who tried. The paper does not establish that anticipated relief from nicotine hunger or cue-driven urges lead to relapse; those are more specific mechanisms than the functional beliefs it assessed. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mental energy seems to be depleted by the exercise of self-control (and by depressed mood) (4).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In terms of PRIME Theory, this involves a sense of self or identity that creates 'rules' (types of plan) which can generate motives (wants and needs) from evaluations (beliefs about what is good or bad).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“An important feature of the exercise of self-control is that it requires and uses up 'mental energy'foot_0 ; i.e., it requires effort.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we can think of human behaviour as resulting at every moment from the interplay of multiple influences on the different levels of motivation involving impulses and inhibitions driven by habits and instinctive mechanisms and by wants and needs.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It is now widely acknowledged that cigarette smoking is addictive and that the main reason for this is that it delivers nicotine to the brain in a convenient, flexible way that allows smokers to control the dose they receive (1).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] RCP, 2000
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Each puff on a cigarette results in rapid absorption of nicotine in the lungs and a rapid increase in nicotine concentration in the brain (6).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The motivation may arise from a number of sources at different levels of the motivational system.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Sources of addiction to cigarettes?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19,20).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stopping smoking almost always requires the exercise of self-control.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Smokers also experience a reduced capacity to gain enjoyment from and be rewarded by other stimuli, which probably results from a rebound of the effect of nicotine in acting as a pleasure amplifier, as described earlier (22).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Transitions can occur suddenly between any state and any other state, depending on the momentary balance of wants and needs.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, if the rule is that smoking is not permitted at all, the boundaries are more clearly defined and the inhibition of smoking will be more powerful and consistent.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there may be a number of reasons for this, one obvious one is that it often requires a long period of recuperation during which reserves of mental energy is restored.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overcoming addiction to cigarettes involves a) making a serious quit attempt and then b) maintaining abstinence in the face of motivation to smoke coming from multiple sources.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This makes the act of smoking enjoyable, hence makes smokers want to smoke.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to PRIME Theory, therefore, the process of smoking cessation can be encapsulated in a simple 4-state model in terms of the rule that is in operation (Figure 2): 1. Smoking (no rule), 2.Not smoking (I do not smoke), 3. Attempting to stop (I am trying not to smoke), and 4. Planning to stop (I have made a definite plan to stop in the near future)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Late relapse may involve continuing impulses and needs in a minority of heavily addicted smokers, but it also appears that beliefs that smoking helps relieve stress can provoke relapse, presumably in response to stressful events (24).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bearing in mind the multiple levels at which human motivation can operate, we can think of addiction to cigarettes as involving multiple sources of motivation to smoke: 1. wanting to smoke for the enjoyment acting to deter quit attempts; 2. cue-driven impulses to smoke, needing to smoking because of 'nicotine hunger' and adverse withdrawal symptoms, reducedself-regulatory capacity, and functional”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The brain recovers its normal functioning during abstinence, leading to decline in cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms.
“presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The Smoking, Not smoking, Attempting to quit, Planning to quit model (SNAP) 17 suggests that smoking cessation involves moving through the four stages of (1) smoking, (2) attempting to quit, (3) planning to quit and (4) not smoking.”
From Service‐user experiences of an integrated psychological intervention for depression or anxiety and tobacco smoking in improving access to psychological therapies services: A qualitative investigation into mechanisms of change in quitting smoking. (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This suggests that the intervention helped her shift from attempting to quit to planning to quit, a shift consistent with the SNAP model of smoking cessation 17”
In the citing paper
“In fact, certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly ‘wanted’ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”
Citations
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“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19, 20).”
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“associated with relapse (19) but persistence of many of the adverse symptoms also appear to lead to relapse (21).”
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“The binding of nicotine to receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), aside from generating the impulse to smoke by virtue of dopamine release in the core of the nucleus accumbens, results in pleasant sensations because of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell (11).”
BackgroundDynamic Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectancies: Prediction of Smoking Lapse and Relapse.
Gwaltney, C. J., Shiffman, S., Balabanis, M. H., & Paty, J. A. (2005) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.4.661 · Cited by 232
The Role of Nicotine in Smoking: A Dual-Reinforcement Model
Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Palmatier, M. I., Liu, X., Chaudhri, N., & Sved, A. F. (2008) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78748-0_6 · Cited by 226
West, R., Baker, C. L., Cappelleri, J. C., & Bushmakin, A. G. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-1041-3 · Cited by 203
Self-citationHughes, J. (2007) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200701188927 · Cited by 173
Foulds, J. (2006) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1368-5031.2006.00955.x · Cited by 136
Intentions to quit smoking change over short periods of time
Hughes, J. R., Keely, J. P., Fagerstrom, K. O., & Callas, P. W. (2005) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.08.011 · Cited by 122
Motives for smoking and their correlates in clients attending Stop Smoking treatment services
McEwen, A., West, R., & McRobbie, H. (2008) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200802027248 · Cited by 120 · cited 2×
“In particular, they believe that it helps to control stress (23).”
BackgroundSelf-citationShiffman, S., Ferguson, S. G., & Gwaltney, C. J. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-0175-4 · Cited by 114
The Neuronal Pathways Mediating the Behavioral and Addictive Properties of Nicotine
Balfour, D. J. K. (2009) · Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69248-5_8 · Cited by 99
A double-blind placebo controlled experimental study of nicotine: I—effects on incentive motivation
Dawkins, L., Powell, J. H., West, R., Powell, J., & Pickering, A. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0588-8 · Cited by 97
Self-citationNicotine patch therapy prior to quitting smoking: a meta‐analysis
Shiffman, S., & Ferguson, S. G. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02138.x · Cited by 94
Dawkins, L., Powell, J. H., West, R., Powell, J., & Pickering, A. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0634-6 · Cited by 85
Self-citationSeidner Burling, A., & Burling, T. (2003) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/1462220031000158708 · Cited by 71 · cited 1×
“The strength of this can be usefully assessed by recording how soon after waking the smoker first lights up a cigarette (17, 18).”
BackgroundIt is possible to help smokers in early motivational stages to quit
Pisinger, C. H., Vestbo, J., Borch‐Johnsen, K., & Jørgensen, T. (2004) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.06.011 · Cited by 68
Laviolette, S. R., Lauzon, N. M., Bishop, S. F., Sun, N., & Tan, H. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1371-08.2008 · Cited by 58
Smoking cessation and financial stress
Siahpush, M., Spittal, M., & Singh, G. K. (2007) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdm070 · Cited by 52
Yong, H.-H., & Borland, R. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.3(suppl.).s216 · Cited by 44
Defining and Assessing Nicotine Dependence in Humans
West, R. (2006) · Novartis Foundation Symposia · doi:10.1002/9780470029237.ch4 · Cited by 36
Self-citationDo resisted temptations during smoking cessation deplete or augment self-control resources?
O'Connell, K. A., Schwartz, J. E., & Shiffman, S. (2008) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.22.4.486 · Cited by 35
Shiffman, S. (2008) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2008.07.019 · Cited by 31
Nicotine is Addictive: The Issue of Free Choice
West, R. (1995) · Effects of Nicotine on Biological Systems II · doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-7445-8_34 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- RCP, 2000, Nicotine Addiction in Britain
- Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
- Pisinger C, 2005, Prev Med, 40, 278
- Cahill K, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Stead L F, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Hughes J R, 2007, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Tobacco smoking: health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions
West, R. (2017) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1325890 · Cited by 694
Self-citationMichie, S., Hyder, N., Walia, A., & West, R. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.11.016 · Cited by 459
Self-citationLe Foll, B., Piper, M. E., Fowler, C. D., Tonstad, S., Bierut, L., Lu, L., Jha, P., & Hall, W. D. (2022) · Nature Reviews Disease Primers · doi:10.1038/s41572-022-00346-w · Cited by 316
Kotz, D., Brown, J., & West, R. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.012 · Cited by 299
Self-citationRoles of "wanting" and "liking" in motivating behavior: gambling, food, and drug addictions
Robinson, M. J. F., Fischer, A. M., Ahuja, A., Lesser, E. N., & Maniates, H. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_387 · Cited by 247
Metadata
- Authors
- West, R.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- West, Robert
- ORCID
- West, Robert
- Venue
- COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 277-283
- ISSN
- 1541-2555 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-2563
- OpenAlex
- W2158717404
- Semantic Scholar
- 57d722905c974bbd721dcc37dbfa8ef436a045b8
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- COPD Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- tobacco dependence, smoking cessation, nicotine, self-control, inhibitory control, nicotine withdrawal, relapse
- MeSH terms
- Smoking Prevention, Humans, Motivation, Smoking, Tobacco Use Disorder, Smoking Cessation, Behavior, Addictive
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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