The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 43 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop
Open accessAbstract
Addiction involves powerful motivation to engage in an activity repeatedly to an extent that is harmful often accompanied by impaired capacity for self-control. To effectively combat addiction to cigarettes requires an understanding that there are several mechanisms underlying it. The PRIME Theory of motivation aims to provide a model that can encapsulate these mechanisms. It recognises that evolution has led to multiple levels of motivation from basic impulses and inhibitions, through 'motives' (feelings of want and need), to 'evaluations' (beliefs about what is good or bad), and plans (intentions regarding future actions). Self-control involves self-consciously generating motives from evaluations or plans; it requires and depletes mental energy. Nicotine from cigarettes generates the motivation to smoke and undermines self-control by interacting with all of the level of motivation. It: creates stimulus-impulse associations resulting in cue-driven urges; impairs inhibitory control; gives enjoyment resulting in 'wanting' to smoke; it leads to 'nicotine hunger', withdrawal symptoms and beliefs about benefits of smoking (e.g. stress relief) all of which can result in a 'need' to smoke. Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke (because of enjoyment) is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and adverse mood and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse. Combating cigarette addiction requires attention to all of these factors.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
West argues that cigarette addiction arises from multiple motivational mechanisms in PRIME Theory—impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, plans, and self-control—and that cessation requires addressing all of them. It distinguishes wanting to smoke for enjoyment, which deters quit attempts, from cue-driven urges, nicotine hunger, withdrawal, and beliefs about smoking benefits, which drive relapse.
Key findings
- PRIME Theory proposes multiple levels of motivation: responses, impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, and plans; higher levels must operate through lower ones, and self-control requires and depletes mental energy.
- Nicotine acts at all levels: it creates stimulus-impulse associations and cue-driven urges, impairs inhibitory control during withdrawal, produces enjoyment and “wanting” to smoke, and causes “nicotine hunger,” withdrawal symptoms, and beliefs about benefits such as stress relief that can generate a “need” to smoke.
- Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke because of enjoyment is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger, adverse mood, and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse.
- In approximately half of cases where smokers form a rule to stop, there is no pre-planning; using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper presenting the PRIME Theory of motivation and applying it to cigarette addiction and smoking cessation; no primary empirical study is reported.
- Draws on cited literature and clinical experience to propose principles for clinical interventions, including a 4-state model of smoking cessation and the SNAP model.
- No sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
Limitations
- The paper states no limitations. Evident: it is a narrative theoretical synthesis, not a systematic review or empirical test, and some cited evidence is described as emerging or anecdotal.
- Evident: the author reports receiving funds for research and consultancy from companies that develop and manufacture smoking cessation medications, a potential conflict of interest.
- Evident: “mental energy” is acknowledged as lacking a known physiological basis and can currently be defined only in terms of subjective experience and behavioral correlates.
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Claims the paper makes
35 Not checked yet · 23 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
In the paper
“However, it is clear that much behaviour is driven by habit or instinct in which one just responds without thinking about the consequences (3)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There is also emerging evidence that during nicotine withdrawal smokers have impaired functioning of the low-level brain mechanisms that underlie inhibition (13).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moreover, it is apparent that we sometimes do things because we planned to do them or have rules about them and do not have to weigh up the costs and benefits each time (3).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Dopamine release in the core appears to act to generate stimulus-impulse associations (10,11).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Thus nicotine taps directly into one of the most basic levels of human motivation generating the impulse to smoke in the presence of smoking cues (12).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It proposes that evolution has led to a multi-level motivational system in which new, higher levels of flexibility have been added on to older ones but have to work through the latter to influence behaviour.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] West R, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Our capacity and skills at achieving self-regulation based on rules we impose on ourselves is a major factor in achieving life goals (4).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“and often our actions are driven by feelings of desire rather than judgements about what would be the best option (3).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Mook D G, 1996
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus smokers can feel urges to smoke in the presence of smoking cues that seem to arise without any obvious reason or anticipation of pleasure from smoking.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in many parts of the brain but of particular interest is the ventral tegmental area (7,8).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In approximately half the cases where this occurs, there is no pre-planning; the smoker implements the quit attempt as soon as the decision is made (28).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Of these, depressed mood early on in the quit attempt appears to be the one most strongly associated with relapse (19)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in practice the lapse does usually lead eventually to full relapse.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, for the rule to be able to generate sufficiently strong wants or needs to inhibit smoking, it needs to be linked to what might be termed 'deep identity': self-ascribed labels and attributes to which the individual is emotionally attached.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It appears that this rewarding effect is enhanced by the fact that other stimuli such as the sensation of smoke in the throat are closely paired in time with the nicotine reward (14)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The intention to stop is quite variable and stimulus dependent (29).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“PRIME Theory predicts that the nature of the not-smoking rule may have a major bearing on the outcome of the quit attempt.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Chronic nicotine ingestion from cigarettes also leads to chronic functional changes in several parts of the brain that lead smokers to feel a need to smoke-to relieve a kind of 'nicotine hunger'.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If, at the same time, that individual has low reserves of mental energy or a weakened motivation for self-protection, the self-imposed rule of not smoking may not be sufficient to prevent the behaviour.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may occur many months and sometimes years after having stopped smoking.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If the rule is that the smoker will 'try not to smoke,' it would be expected that it would not generate sufficiently strong motivation on all relevant occasions to prevent smoking.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If the would-be ex-smoker is able to maintain complete abstinence cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms decline, presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The brain recovers its normal functioning during abstinence, leading to decline in cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms.
In the paper
“Having attempted to stop and failed in the past few weeks or even months is strongly associated with failure of a subsequent quit attempt, even controlling for other measures of addiction (25).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It has also been found that chronic financial stress (26) and depression (19), which deplete mental energy are associated with greater risk of relapse.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, once the cigarette is smoked, it rekindles the other sources of motivation, including the stimulus-impulse associations and the 'nicotine hunger'; this leads over a period of time to full resumption of smoking.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Enjoyment of smoking, leading to 'wanting' to smoke does not appear to be a major factor in relapse (31),”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“The binding of nicotine to receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), aside from generating the impulse to smoke by virtue of dopamine release in the core of the nucleus accumbens, results in pleasant sensations because of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell (11).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [11] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Thus, a smoker who feels miserable and wants to be 'cheered' up, or who is stressed and needs to feel better will on those occasions experience a want or need to smoke (24).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In terms of PRIME Theory, the process of smoking cessation therefore involves: forming a personal rule not to smoke followed by selfconscious implementation of that rule in the face of impulses, wants and needs to smoke.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Smokers will form that rule when at the precise moment they: r have the idea of making the rule and r this idea feels more attractive than the idea of continuing to smoke.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The effect is substantially reduced risk of relapse with each week of abstinence that passes (32).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When this occurs, clinical experience suggests that the individual often does not intend to resume smoking permanently but only long enough to address the particular need at that time.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“Thus while nicotine acutely increases the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, after chronic use there appears to be abnormally low levels of dopamine released when central nervous system (CNS) nicotine concentrations are depleted (16).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These beliefs will lead the smoker to want or need to smoke at times when circumstances make them relevant (e.g., at times of stress).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Evaluations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“but persistence of many of the adverse symptoms also appear to lead to relapse (21).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The strength of this can be usefully assessed by recording how soon after waking the smoker first lights up a cigarette (17,18).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“On the other hand one study has found that successfully overcoming urges to smoke may build capacity for self-control (27).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This would explain why using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates (34);”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Principles underpinning effective smoking cessation interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“There is some evidence that this is mediated by the extent to which the cigarette is found to be satisfying (33).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the early stages following the quit attempt, cue-driven urges to smoke and the need to smoke will dominate.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With nicotine from the NRT competing with nicotine from cigarettes for the receptors, one would expect a partial dissociation between the act of smoking and its effects in the nucleus accumbens.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Principles underpinning effective smoking cessation interventions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Medications that have been shown to substantially improve smokers' chances of achieving long term abstinence are nicotine replacement therapies (NRT), bupropion, varenicline and nortriptyline (36)(37)(38).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Principles underpinning effective smoking cessation interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Cahill K, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Not checked yetcites [37] Stead L F, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Not checked yetcites [38] Hughes J R, 2007, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- Probably not a substantial claim. 7
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“There is evidence emerging that wanting to smoke (enjoyment of smoking) deters quit attempts while needing to smoke (anticipated relief from nicotine hunger) and cue driven impulses to smoke (experienced as 'urges') lead to relapse after the quit attempt has been started (18,24).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] source
- Partly supportedcites [24] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion (page not supplied) report that smoking for enjoyment was associated with fewer quit attempts, while smoking for stress management was associated with reduced quit success among those who tried. The paper does not establish that anticipated relief from nicotine hunger or cue-driven urges lead to relapse; those are more specific mechanisms than the functional beliefs it assessed. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mental energy seems to be depleted by the exercise of self-control (and by depressed mood) (4).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In terms of PRIME Theory, this involves a sense of self or identity that creates 'rules' (types of plan) which can generate motives (wants and needs) from evaluations (beliefs about what is good or bad).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“An important feature of the exercise of self-control is that it requires and uses up 'mental energy'foot_0 ; i.e., it requires effort.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we can think of human behaviour as resulting at every moment from the interplay of multiple influences on the different levels of motivation involving impulses and inhibitions driven by habits and instinctive mechanisms and by wants and needs.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > UNDERSTANDING HUMAN MOTIVATION: PRIME THEORY
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It is now widely acknowledged that cigarette smoking is addictive and that the main reason for this is that it delivers nicotine to the brain in a convenient, flexible way that allows smokers to control the dose they receive (1).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] RCP, 2000
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Each puff on a cigarette results in rapid absorption of nicotine in the lungs and a rapid increase in nicotine concentration in the brain (6).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Impulses and inhibitions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The motivation may arise from a number of sources at different levels of the motivational system.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Sources of addiction to cigarettes?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19,20).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stopping smoking almost always requires the exercise of self-control.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Smokers also experience a reduced capacity to gain enjoyment from and be rewarded by other stimuli, which probably results from a rebound of the effect of nicotine in acting as a pleasure amplifier, as described earlier (22).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Transitions can occur suddenly between any state and any other state, depending on the momentary balance of wants and needs.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, if the rule is that smoking is not permitted at all, the boundaries are more clearly defined and the inhibition of smoking will be more powerful and consistent.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there may be a number of reasons for this, one obvious one is that it often requires a long period of recuperation during which reserves of mental energy is restored.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Self-control
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overcoming addiction to cigarettes involves a) making a serious quit attempt and then b) maintaining abstinence in the face of motivation to smoke coming from multiple sources.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This makes the act of smoking enjoyable, hence makes smokers want to smoke.”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > Motives
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to PRIME Theory, therefore, the process of smoking cessation can be encapsulated in a simple 4-state model in terms of the rule that is in operation (Figure 2): 1. Smoking (no rule), 2.Not smoking (I do not smoke), 3. Attempting to stop (I am trying not to smoke), and 4. Planning to stop (I have made a definite plan to stop in the near future)”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Late relapse may involve continuing impulses and needs in a minority of heavily addicted smokers, but it also appears that beliefs that smoking helps relieve stress can provoke relapse, presumably in response to stressful events (24).”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > The process of smoking cessation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bearing in mind the multiple levels at which human motivation can operate, we can think of addiction to cigarettes as involving multiple sources of motivation to smoke: 1. wanting to smoke for the enjoyment acting to deter quit attempts; 2. cue-driven impulses to smoke, needing to smoking because of 'nicotine hunger' and adverse withdrawal symptoms, reducedself-regulatory capacity, and functional”
§ The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The brain recovers its normal functioning during abstinence, leading to decline in cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms.
“presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The Smoking, Not smoking, Attempting to quit, Planning to quit model (SNAP) 17 suggests that smoking cessation involves moving through the four stages of (1) smoking, (2) attempting to quit, (3) planning to quit and (4) not smoking.”
From Service‐user experiences of an integrated psychological intervention for depression or anxiety and tobacco smoking in improving access to psychological therapies services: A qualitative investigation into mechanisms of change in quitting smoking. (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This suggests that the intervention helped her shift from attempting to quit to planning to quit, a shift consistent with the SNAP model of smoking cessation 17”
In the citing paper
“In fact, certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly ‘wanted’ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”
Citations
Cites
Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation
Stead, L. F., Perera, R., Bullen, C., Mant, D., Hartmann‐Boyce, J., Cahill, K., & Lancaster, T. (2012) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd000146.pub4 · Cited by 2,564
Losing control: how and why people fail at self-regulation
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-6508 · Cited by 1,924
Ikemoto, S. (2007) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.05.004 · Cited by 1,477
Baron, J. A. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009263672 · Cited by 1,434
Shape of the relapse curve and long-term abstinence among untreated smokers
Hughes, J. R., Keely, J., & Naud, S. (2004) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00540.x · Cited by 1,414
Antidepressants for smoking cessation
Howes, S., Hartmann-Boyce, J., Livingstone-Banks, J., Hong, B., & Lindson, N. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd000031.pub5 · Cited by 1,352
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation
Hey, K., Lancaster, T., & Bala, M. (2006) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006103 · Cited by 866
West, R., & Brown, J. (2013) · doi:10.1002/9781118484890 · Cited by 816
Self-citationEffects of abstinence from tobacco: Valid symptoms and time course
Hughes, J. (2007) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200701188919 · Cited by 801 · cited 1×
“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19, 20).”
BackgroundCorrigall, W. A., Coen, K. M., & Adamson, K. L. (1994) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90401-4 · Cited by 740
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- RCP, 2000, Nicotine Addiction in Britain
- Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
- Pisinger C, 2005, Prev Med, 40, 278
- Cahill K, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Stead L F, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
- Hughes J R, 2007, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Tobacco smoking: health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions
West, R. (2017) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1325890 · Cited by 694
Self-citationMichie, S., Hyder, N., Walia, A., & West, R. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.11.016 · Cited by 459
Self-citationLe Foll, B., Piper, M. E., Fowler, C. D., Tonstad, S., Bierut, L., Lu, L., Jha, P., & Hall, W. D. (2022) · Nature Reviews Disease Primers · doi:10.1038/s41572-022-00346-w · Cited by 316
Kotz, D., Brown, J., & West, R. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.012 · Cited by 299
Self-citationRoles of "wanting" and "liking" in motivating behavior: gambling, food, and drug addictions
Robinson, M. J. F., Fischer, A. M., Ahuja, A., Lesser, E. N., & Maniates, H. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_387 · Cited by 247
Metadata
- Authors
- West, R.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- West, Robert
- ORCID
- West, Robert
- Venue
- COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 277-283
- ISSN
- 1541-2555 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-2563
- OpenAlex
- W2158717404
- Semantic Scholar
- 57d722905c974bbd721dcc37dbfa8ef436a045b8
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- COPD Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- tobacco dependence, smoking cessation, nicotine, self-control, inhibitory control, nicotine withdrawal, relapse
- MeSH terms
- Smoking Prevention, Humans, Motivation, Smoking, Tobacco Use Disorder, Smoking Cessation, Behavior, Addictive
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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