Challenging Race-Based Medicine Through Historical Education About the Social Construction of Race
Open accessAbstract
Background: Scientifically, there is little genetic variation among humans and race has no biological basis. However, medical school preclinical curricula tend to misrepresent race and reify biologically essentialist explanations for disease. The social construct of race is, therefore, used to inform health care providers' treatment decisions. Use of race-based medicine has been identified as a contributor to racial health disparities, spurring a growing movement to challenge race essentialism and race-based medicine. The current research tested an intervention that educates college students about the historical construction of racial categories in the United States. Methods: Participants who were randomly assigned to the intervention condition read an article highlighting the history of the sociopolitical construction of race. They were then prompted to discuss in dyads how racial categories were created and changed over history, and-in light of all this-the appropriateness of race-based medicine. Those assigned to the control condition advanced directly to the outcome measures. Results: Participants in the intervention condition reported less race essentialism, less support for race-based medicine, and greater belief that race-based medicine contributes to racial health disparities. Findings were not moderated by premed status. Discussion: Our data provide initial evidence that our interactive intervention could effectively reduce biological essentialism and support for race-based medicine in both premed and non-premed students. Health Equity Implications: This intervention has the potential to shape the way health care providers in-training understand race, their internalization of biologically essentialist explanations for disease, and willingness to adopt race-based treatment plans.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study tested a brief interactive educational intervention about the historical sociopolitical construction of race among U.S. undergraduates and found reduced race essentialism and less support for race-based medicine. Effects did not differ by premed status, though the authors frame this as initial proof-of-concept evidence.
Key findings
- Intervention participants reported lower biological essentialism than controls (M=2.87 vs. 3.61; t=5.25, p<0.001) and lower general race essentialism (M=3.71 vs. 4.22; t=6.77, p<0.001).
- Intervention participants reported less general support for race-based medicine (M=4.06 vs. 4.88; t=7.52, p<0.001), less agreement with specific race-based medical decisions (M=2.91 vs. 3.76; t=7.31, p<0.001), and less trust in those decisions (M=2.79 vs. 3.48; t=6.45, p<0.001).
- Intervention participants more strongly agreed that race-based medicine contributes to racial health disparities (M=5.53 vs. 5.04; t=2.92, p=0.004).
- Premed status did not moderate intervention effects (ps>0.10), but premed students were more likely than non-premed students to agree with physicians’ race-based decisions (M=3.56 vs. 3.21; F(1,349)=7.79, p=0.006) and to trust those decisions (M=3.37 vs. 3.02; F(1,349)=10.08, p=0.002).
Methods
- Undergraduate students (N=356) were recruited from a psychology department participant pool at a large public university in the Southeastern United States and completed the study on Zoom; conditions were control (n=161) and intervention (n=195).
- Intervention participants read a ~500-word article on the historical social construction of race, discussed it in dyads, read a ~500-word article about a biracial teenage boy harmed by race correction, and discussed race-based medicine; control participants went directly to outcome measures.
- Outcomes were assessed with 7-point Likert-type measures of biological and general race essentialism, support for race-based medicine, agreement with and trust in specific race-based medical decisions, and belief that race-based medicine contributes to racial health disparities; analyses used t-tests and ANOVAs.
Limitations
- The paper states that pre-intervention attitudes were not assessed, limiting confirmation that individual differences were evenly distributed across conditions.
- The paper states that the study was not longitudinal, so durability of attitude changes is unknown.
- The text makes evident that the sample was undergraduates at one Southeastern public university rather than medical students, and outcomes were self-reported; the authors describe this as an initial proof-of-concept test.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
8 of 26 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Race corrections in clinical algorithms often have the effect of requiring patients of color to be sicker before they qualify for the same level of care as a White patient.
“Such “corrections” are used in a variety of areas of medicine, from endocrinology and nephrology to oncology and obstetrics, which often have the effect of requiring patients of color to be sicker before they qualify for the same level of care as a White patient.24–26”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked- cites [24] source
The section on racial disparities in kidney disease says the eGFR race coefficient can delay transplant waitlist priority for Black patients. The section on implications of race-adjusted equations also describes a heart-failure calculator that assigns Black patients lower mortality risk, potentially withholding recommended therapy. These examples support the claimed effect, but the paper does not establish that it occurs often across all the named specialties, particularly oncology and obstetrics. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [25] source
The passage on UNOS waiting-time reinstatement (section and page unavailable) describes a Black transplant recipient who, at the same creatinine level as another recipient, would not regain waiting time. This supports the claim for a kidney-transplant eligibility decision, but the paper does not establish the broader claim across the other areas of medicine named in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [26] source
The introduction says many race-adjusted algorithms may direct more resources to White patients, and the Nephrology section says race-corrected kidney estimates might delay Black patients’ referral for specialist care or transplantation. Table 1 likewise says a heart-failure score may raise the threshold for clinical resources for Black patients. These passages support the concern behind the paraphrase, but describe potential effects rather than establishing that patients of color often must be sicker to receive the same care. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Removing race corrections in the treatment of kidney disease would result in a third of Black kidney disease patients in the United States receiving an elevated level of care.
“a recent analysis of the impact of removing race corrections in the treatment of kidney disease indicated that a third of Black kidney disease patients in the United States would receive an elevated level of care if the race corrections were dropped.27”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] source
The Results report that 743 of 2,225 African-American patients (33.4%) in one healthcare system would be reclassified to a more severe CKD stage if the race multiplier were removed. The paper discusses potential care implications, but it does not establish that one-third of Black kidney disease patients across the United States would actually receive an elevated level of care. The Abstract also cautions that the single-system sample may limit generalizability; page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Race-based medicine has been identified as a contributor to racial health disparities in the United States.
“race-based medicine has been identified as a contributor to racial health disparities in the United States 29”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] source
- Premisecitation
Active learning activities facilitate long-term changes in attitudes.
“Beyond facilitating deep learning, active learning activities also seem to facilitate long-term changes in attitudes.46–48”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites [46] source
- cites [47] source
- cites [48] source
The Materials and procedure and primary analysis sections report that participants expecting to transmit a persuasive message retained their attitudes four weeks later, while those expecting to receive more information showed weakening attitudes. This supports persistence after a specific participatory task, but the study did not test active learning activities generally or show that those activities themselves produced the initial attitude change. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
A substantial minority of medical students and residents report false beliefs about biological differences between racial groups.
“a substantial minority of medical students and residents report false beliefs about biological differences between racial groups—such as Black people having thicker skin than White people.23”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] source
Study 2 reports that about 50% of its medical-student and resident participants considered at least one false belief possibly, probably, or definitely true. The paper describes this as a sample of white medical students and residents, so the citing sentence omits a population qualifier. The paper also gives the thicker-skin belief as an example. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Sharing subjective experiences is particularly persuasive in shaping perspectives on social issues.
“given evidence that sharing subjective experiences is particularly persuasive in shaping perspectives on social issues.51”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [51] source
In “The Power of Personal Experience” (page unavailable), the paper reports research finding that personal narratives can persuade and shift views on contentious issues. But it explicitly says its own studies focus on respect rather than persuasion and leave persuasion aside. It therefore does not establish that sharing subjective experiences is particularly persuasive at changing perspectives. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
None of the effects of condition were moderated by premed status.
“none of the effects of condition were moderated by premed status (ps>0.10).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported less biological race essentialism than participants in the control condition.
“| Biological Essentialism | 3.61 (0.11) | 2.87 (0.09) | 5.25 | <0.001 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported less general race essentialism than participants in the control condition.
“| General Essentialism | 4.22 (0.05) | 3.71 (0.06) | 6.77 | <0.001 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported less trust in specific race-based medical decisions than participants in the control condition.
“| Trust in Specific Race-Based Medical Decisions | 3.48 (0.08) | 2.79 (0.07) | 6.45 | <0.001 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported less agreement with specific race-based medical decisions than participants in the control condition.
“| Agreement with Specific Race-Based Medical Decisions | 3.76 (0.09) | 2.91 (0.07) | 7.31 | <0.001 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported greater belief that race-based medicine contributes to racial health disparities than participants in the control condition.
“| Race-Based Medicine Contributes to Racial Health Disparities | 5.04 (0.11) | 5.53 (0.12) | 2.92 | 0.004 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Participants in the intervention condition reported less general support for race-based medicine than participants in the control condition.
“| General Race-Based Medicine Support | 4.88 (0.09) | 4.06 (0.06) | 7.52 | <0.001 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Premed students were more likely to trust the physicians in the race-based medicine scenarios than non-premed students.
“Relative to non-premed students (M=3.02, SE=0.07), premed students (M=3.37, SE=0.09) were also more likely to trust the physicians in the race-based medicine scenarios, F(1, 349)=10.08, p=0.002.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Premed students were more likely to agree with the physicians' race-based medical decision than non-premed students.
“Premed students (M=3.56, SE=0.10) were more likely to agree with the physicians' race-based medical decision than non-premed students (M=3.21, SE=0.07), F(1, 349)=7.79, p=0.006.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Premed status did not significantly predict responses on any of the other outcome measures.
“Premed status did not significantly predict responses on any of the other outcome measures (ps>0.05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention and control condition significantly differed from one another on all six outcome measures.
“The intervention and control condition of participants significantly differed from one another on all six of our outcome measures (see Table 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The study did not assess participants' pre-intervention attitudes, limiting the ability to confirm that individual differences were evenly distributed.
“Random assignment was used to minimize pre-existing differences between groups, but we did not assess the participant's pre-intervention attitudes; therefore, our ability to confirm that individual differences were evenly distributed is limited.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Ignorance of highly relevant sociohistorical background information is theorized to shape contemporary perceptions of societal issues.
“This theoretical perspective conceptually builds upon the epistemologies of ignorance framework,37–40 wherein ignorance of highly relevant sociohistorical background information is theorized to shape contemporary perceptions of societal issues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked - Premisecitation
Active learning has been identified as the most effective approach to learning across multiple domains and disciplines.
“Active learning has been identified as the most effective approach to learning across multiple domains and disciplines,42”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] source
- Premisecitation
Black and Hispanic women's maternal morbidity and mortality rates are elevated by race corrections in the vaginal birth after cesarean clinical algorithm.
“Similarly, Black and Hispanic women's maternal morbidity and mortality rates are elevated by race corrections in the vaginal birth after the cesarean clinical algorithm, which recommend that they opt for surgery.28”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] source
- Premisecitation
Interactive engagement, wherein participants discuss concepts with peers rather than just passively receiving new information, results in dramatically better learning outcomes.
“numerous studies have shown that interactive engagement, wherein participants discuss concepts with peers (rather than just passively receiving new information), resulted in dramatically better learning outcomes.43–45”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Tawa's study found that participants exposed to a video challenging the biological validity of race showed reduced biological essentialism relative to a control group.
“In their study, Tawa recruited participants from social media platforms to watch a 10-min video challenging the biological validity of race and emphasizing its sociopolitical construction. Participants who were exposed to this video showed reduced biological essentialism relative to the control group (who watched a video about stereotyping).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] source
- Premisecitation
Prior research shows that education can be a viable pathway to reduce biological essentialism.
“Prior research shows that education can be a viable pathway to reduce biological essentialism.41”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] source
- Study design and conductreasoning
Random assignment was used to ensure that individual differences among participants before the study were evenly distributed across conditions.
“Random assignment was used to ensure that individual differences among participants (e.g., in their knowledge of race and its conceptualization as biological) before the study were evenly distributed across conditions, such that any observed differences on our measures between groups could be attributed to our intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Race is frequently presented as a biological risk factor for disease in preclinical lectures at U.S. medical schools.
“Race is frequently presented as a biological risk factor for disease in preclinical lectures at U.S. medical schools18–20”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- May combine two claims. 4
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe interactive intervention could effectively reduce biological essentialism and support for race-based medicine in both premed and non-premed students.
“Our data provide initial evidence that our interactive intervention could effectively reduce biological essentialism and support for race-based medicine in both premed and non-premed students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe trust in specific race-based medical decisions measure had an internal consistency reliability of α=0.81.
“trust in (α=0.81)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningBy including critical historical education about the sociopolitical construction of race in medical school curricula, interventions of this kind have the potential to help reduce persistent racial health disparities.
“By including critical historical education about the sociopolitical construction of race in medical school curricula, interventions of this kind have the potential to help reduce persistent racial health disparities that impact the lives of millions of people of color in the United States, creating a more equitable health care system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Reducing essentialist attitudes and support for race-based medicine among students will lead to reduced use of race-based medicine in clinical practice and thereby reduce racial health disparities.
- Rests on an assumption: The effects of the intervention on undergraduate students will generalize to medical students and future physicians.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataOur intervention may be one avenue for changing how medical education is structured, as it shows potential to reduce racial essentialism and support for race-based medical practices among the next generation of medical practitioners.
“Our intervention may be one such avenue for changing how medical education is structured, as it shows the potential to reduce racial essentialism and support for race-based medical practices among the next generation of medical practitioners.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe study was not longitudinal, so it cannot draw conclusions about the durability of the attitude changes.
“Since this was not a longitudinal study, we are also unable to draw conclusions about the durability of the attitude changes observed in our study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe general race essentialism measure had an internal consistency reliability of α=0.84.
“General race essentialism was assessed using the Race Conceptions Scale55 (α=0.84)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe biological race essentialism measure had an internal consistency reliability of α=0.86.
“Biological race essentialism (α=0.86)54”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe support for race-based medicine measure had an internal consistency reliability of α=0.90.
“We assessed support for race-based medicine in general (α=0.90)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe Interactive, Constructive, Active, and Passive framework identifies interactive learning as the strategy that results in the most learning.
“Our intervention approach was developed using the Interactive, Constructive, Active, and Passive framework to facilitate interactive learning among students, which has been identified by education scholars as the strategy that results in the most learning.52”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [52] source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe agreement with specific race-based medical decisions measure had an internal consistency reliability of α=0.78.
“agreement with (α=0.78) specific race-based medical decisions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningWhen only a single participant was present, they were placed in the control condition regardless of their originally planned condition assignment.
“Two participants were required to administer the experimental condition; therefore, when only a single participant was present to participate in the session, they were placed in the control condition regardless of their originally planned condition assignment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThere is little genetic variation among humans, and much more genetic variation within racial groups than there are between them.
“Despite advanced genomic research confirming that there is little genetic variation among humans, and much more genetic variation within racial groups than there are between them,19”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [19] source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe intervention has the potential to shape the way health care providers in-training understand race, their internalization of biologically essentialist explanations for disease, and willingness to adopt race-based treatment plans.
“This intervention has the potential to shape the way health care providers in-training understand race, their internalization of biologically essentialist explanations for disease, and willingness to adopt race-based treatment plans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Reducing essentialist attitudes and support for race-based medicine among students will lead to reduced use of race-based medicine in clinical practice and thereby reduce racial health disparities.
“This intervention has the potential to shape the way health care providers in-training understand race, their internalization of biologically essentialist explanations for disease, and willingness to adopt race-based treatment plans.”
“By including critical historical education about the sociopolitical construction of race in medical school curricula, interventions of this kind have the potential to help reduce persistent racial health disparities that impact the lives of millions of people of color in the United States, creating a more equitable health care system.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The effects of the intervention on undergraduate students will generalize to medical students and future physicians.
“Testing our interactive educational intervention in this population allowed us to do an initial assessment of its potential effectiveness (proof of concept) before attempting a much more costly and logistically challenging intervention with medical students.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The historical information presented in the intervention accurately represents the sociopolitical construction of race.
“Those who were assigned to the intervention condition each read a different article (∼500 words) highlighting the historical social construction of race (see the Open Science Framework for full articles, materials, and data)”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(1, 349) = 7.79reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“F(1, 349)=7.79, p = .006”
- ConsistentF(1, 349) = 10.08reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1, 349)=10.08, p = .002”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
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“13 17 Thus, by the time U.S. students matriculate into medical school most of them already conceptualize race in a biological way.”
BackgroundReconstructing Race in Science and Society: Biology Textbooks, 1952–2002
Morning, A. J. (2008) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/592206 · Cited by 114 · cited 2× · see citing works
“We recruited U.S. college students because they have generally been exposed to es-sentialist notions of race through both cultural messages 53 and formal education, 11,12 and a substantial proportion of the students in the selected university participant pool intend to apply to medical school.”
BackgroundMethodChanging How Race Is Portrayed in Medical Education: Recommendations From Medical Students
Nieblas‐Bedolla, E., Christophers, B., Nkinsi, N. T., Schumann, P. D., & Stein, E. M. (2020) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000003496 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Race Based Medicine, Colorblind Disease: How Racism in Medicine Harms Us All
Yearby, R. (2020) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2020.1851811 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Donovan, B. (2013) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21138 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Donovan, B. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21370 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Ripp, K., & Braun, L. (2017) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2016.1268056 · Cited by 80 · cited 2× · see citing works
“22 In fact, a substantial minority of medical students and residents report false beliefs about biological differences between racial groups—such as Black people having thicker skin than White people.”
BackgroundA systemic approach to the psychology of racial bias within individuals and society
Skinner, A. L., George, M., Wages, J., Sánchez, S., & Perry, S. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00190-z · Cited by 80 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We recruited U.S. college students because they have generally been exposed to es-sentialist notions of race through both cultural messages 53 and formal education, 11,12 and a substantial proportion of the students in the selected university participant pool intend to apply to medical school.”
MethodScientific Racism and North American Psychology
Winston, A. S. (2020) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.516 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Avoiding Racial Essentialism in Medical Science Curricula
Braun, L., & Saunders, B. F. (2017) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/journalofethics.2017.19.6.peer1-1706 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Donovan, B. (2016) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21221 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Race Correction and Spirometry
Braun, L. (2020) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.10.046 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Advancing a sociology of ignorance in the study of racism and racial non‐knowing
Mueller, J. C. (2018) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12600 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Goodman, A. H., Moses, Y. T., & Jones, J. L. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118233023 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Roberts, D. E. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)32716-1 · Cited by 63 · cited 4× · see citing works
“28 35 Some major medical organizations, such as the American Medical Association, have responded to this scrutiny by reconsidering how medical education, research, and practice contribute to racial health disparities, and by adopting policies that aim at reducing racial essen-tialism in medicine.”
BackgroundInfluentialTsai, J. W., Cerdeña, J. P., Goedel, W. C., Asch, W. S., Grubbs, V., Mendu, M. L., & Kaufman, J. S. (2021) · eClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101197 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Racialized algorithms for kidney function: Erasing social experience
Braun, L., Wentz, A. E., Baker, R., Richardson, E., & Tsai, J. W. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113548 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Why mainstream research will not end scientific racism in psychology
Winston, A. S. (2020) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354320925176 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Yalcinkaya, N. S., Estrada-Villalta, S., & Adams, G. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00900 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Theorizing Race and Racism: Preliminary Reflections on the Medical Curriculum
Braun, L. (2017) · American Journal of Law & Medicine · doi:10.1177/0098858817723662 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
McChesney, K. Y. (2015) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244015611712 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Discovery of Reliable Attitude Change Persistence Resulting from a Transmitter Tuning Set
Boninger, D. S., Brock, T. C., Cook, T. D., Gruder, C. L., & Romer, D. (1990) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00212.x · Cited by 31 · see citing works
How Should Educators and Publishers Eliminate Racial Essentialism?
Tsai, J. (2022) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2022.201 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Mosley, M. P., Tasfia, N., Serna, K., Camacho‐Rivera, M., & Frye, V. A. (2020) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.14443 · Cited by 14 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Race is frequently presented as a biological risk factor for disease in preclinical lectures at U.S. medical schools 18–20 and students are often encouraged to memorize race-disease pairings, 18,21 which are useful diagnostic shortcuts for the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination Step 1.”
BackgroundThe Propagation of Race and Racial Differences as Biological in Preclinical Education
Ibrahim, Z., Brown, C., Crow, B., Roumimper, H., & Kureshi, S. (2022) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-021-01457-x · Cited by 14 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Race is frequently presented as a biological risk factor for disease in preclinical lectures at U.S. medical schools 18–20 and students are often encouraged to memorize race-disease pairings, 18,21 which are useful diagnostic shortcuts for the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination Step 1.”
BackgroundTawa, J. (2020) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-020-00125-7 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“41 In their study, Tawa recruited participants from social media platforms to watch a 10-min video challenging the biological validity of race and emphasizing its sociopolitical construction.”
BackgroundHow Abolition of Race-Based Medicine Is Necessary to American Health Justice
Richmond, S. P., & Grubbs, V. (2022) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2022.226 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Race-Based eGFR Assessment for Kidney Transplantation
Hoenig, M. P., & Pavlakis, M. (2021) · Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology · doi:10.2215/cjn.11020821 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Leading Academic Racists of the Twentieth Century
Tucker, W. H. (2003) · The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education · doi:10.2307/3134390 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The transmitter‐persistence effect: Resolving the dispute
Tal‐Or, N., Nemets, E., & Ziv, S. (2009) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510902764233 · Cited by 1 · cited 1× · see citing works
“48”
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- 38. Mills CW. The Racial Contract. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, New York; 1997.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Sociodemographic Biases in Machine Learning Algorithms: A Biomedical Informatics Perspective
Franklin, G., Stephens, R., Piracha, M., Tiosano, S., Lehouillier, F., Koppel, R., & Elkin, P. (2024) · Life · doi:10.3390/life14060652 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Horsfall, L., Bondaronek, P., Ive, J., & Poduval, S. (2025) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s527000 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“99 Other studies have focused on the impact of genetics education on high-school students.”
Medical educators’ perceptions of race in clinical practice
Futterman, J., Bi, C., Crow, B., Kureshi, S., & Okah, E. D. (2024) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-05232-5 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Education on structural racism should incorporate lessons on the historical construction of racial groups [4, 33].”
BackgroundKoenig, J., Olafuyi, O., & Patel, R. M. (2025) · Pharmacology Research & Perspectives · doi:10.1002/prp2.70073 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Essentialism and Ethnoracial Bias: A Meta-Analysis
James, D., Bowling, A. M., & Moeyaert, M. (2025) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/10892680251394610 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
What Does It Mean to Be White in Veterinary Medicine?
Labelle, A. L. (2024) · Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2024.06.007 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Skinner-Dorkenoo, A. L., Rogbeer, K. G., Sarmal, A., Ware, C., & Zhu, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athans, Georgia, USA.
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- University of Georgia (US)
- Venue
- Health Equity
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2023-11-01
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 764-772
- ISSN
- 2473-1242 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10698761
- OpenAlex
- W4389168380
- Semantic Scholar
- e5d88dcb7b002c7f3af69a6de517b08780aa79df
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 3
- FWCI
- 0.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Health Equity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- University of Georgia
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Race, Genetics, and Society
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Medical History and Research
- Keywords
- race-based medicine, social construction of race, medical education, racial disparities in health, biological essentialism
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-26.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-26.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
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