Microglial/Macrophage Polarization Dynamics following Traumatic Brain Injury
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Activated microglia and macrophages exert dual beneficial and detrimental roles after central nervous system injury, which are thought to be due to their polarization along a continuum from a classical pro-inflammatory M1-like state to an alternative anti-inflammatory M2-like state. The goal of the present study was to analyze the temporal dynamics of microglia/macrophage polarization within the lesion micro-environment following traumatic brain injury (TBI) using a moderate-level controlled cortical impact (CCI) model in mice. We performed a detailed phenotypic analysis of M1- and M2-like polarized microglia/macrophages, as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX2) expression, through 7 days post-injury using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), flow cytometry and image analyses. We demonstrated that microglia/macrophages express both M1- and M2-like phenotypic markers early after TBI, but the transient up-regulation of the M2-like phenotype was replaced by a predominant M1- or mixed transitional (Mtran) phenotype that expressed high levels of NOX2 at 7 days post-injury. The shift towards the M1-like and Mtran phenotype was associated with increased cortical and hippocampal neurodegeneration. In a follow up study, we administered a selective NOX2 inhibitor, gp91ds-tat, to CCI mice starting at 24 h post-injury to investigate the relationship between NOX2 and M1-like/Mtran phenotypes. Delayed gp91ds-tat treatment altered M1-/M2-like balance in favor of the anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotype, and significantly reduced oxidative damage in neurons at 7 days post-injury. Therefore, our data suggest that despite M1-like and M2-like polarized microglia/macrophages being activated after TBI, the early M2-like response becomes dysfunctional over time, resulting in development of pathological M1-like and Mtran phenotypes driven by increased NOX2 activity.
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Post-injury microglia promote increased oxidative damage leading to neurodegeneration through a NOX2-dependent mechanism.
“Of recent interest is how post-injury microglia promote increased oxidative damage leading to neurodegeneration through a NOX2-dependent mechanism [100,117,118].”
From Untangling senescent and damage‐associated microglia in the aging and diseased brain (2023) · cites this paper as [117]
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- Authors
- Kumar, A., Alvarez-Croda, D.-M., Stoica, B. A., Faden, A. I., & Loane, D. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Department of Anesthesiology and Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR) Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.
- Corresponding author
- Loane, David J.
- Venue
- Journal of Neurotrauma
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-10
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 1732-1750
- ISSN
- 0897-7151 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-9042
- PMC
- PMC5065034
- OpenAlex
- W2209119157
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 17.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Neurotrauma (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (AG028747)
- National Institute on Aging (AG028747, P30AG028747)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS037313, R01NS082308)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Keywords
- microglial polarization, macrophage polarization, traumatic brain injury, M1/M2 phenotype, NOX2, controlled cortical impact, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, oxidative damage, hippocampus, cortical injury, temporal dynamics
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