Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance
Open accessAbstract
In later adulthood brain pathology becomes common and trajectories of cognitive change are heterogeneous. Among the multiple determinants of late-life cognitive course, cognitive reserve has been proposed as an important factor that modifies or buffers the impact of brain pathology on cognitive function. This article presents and investigates a novel method for measuring and investigating such factors. The core concept is that in a population where pathology is common and variably present, 'reserve' may be defined as the difference between the cognitive performance predicted by an individual's level of pathology and that individual's actual performance. By this definition, people whose measured cognitive performance is better than predicted by pathology have high reserve, whereas those who perform worse than predicted have low reserve. To test this hypothesis, we applied a latent variable model to data from a diverse ageing cohort and decomposed the variance in a measure of episodic memory into three components, one predicted by demographics, one predicted by pathology as measured by structural MRI and a 'residual' or 'reserve' term that included all remaining variance. To investigate the plausibility of this approach, we then tested the residual component as an operational measure of reserve. Specific predictions about the effects of this putative reserve measure were generated from a general conceptual model of reserve. Each was borne from the results. The results show that the current level of reserve, as measured by this decomposition approach, modifies rates of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to dementia, modifies rates of longitudinal decline in executive function and, most importantly, attenuates the effect of brain atrophy on cognitive decline such that atrophy is more strongly associated with cognitive decline in subjects with low reserve than in those with high reserve. Decomposing the variance in cognitive function scores offers a promising new approach to the measure and study of cognitive reserve.
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When adults with high reserve eventually show cognitive decline, they decline at a rapid rate.
“However, it has been observed that when adults with high levels of reserve, as indicated by one or more reserve proxies, do eventually display cognitive decline, they do so at a rapid rate 69.”
From Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing (2018) · cites this paper as [69]
The Hypothesis 4 results report that higher baseline reserve predicted slower, not faster, decline in executive function. The Discussion likewise says higher reserve was associated with less decline. The paper does not report a separate analysis of decline after its onset that would support the citing sentence's qualification. (LLM, conf=0.81)
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González, H. M., Mungas, D., Reed, B., Marshall, S. C., & Haan, M. N. (2001) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617701755026 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationWinkler, M. G., & Bertman, S. L. (1995) · Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges · doi:10.1097/00001888-199509000-00021 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Recruitment of a Community-based Cohort for Research on Diversity and Risk of Dementia
Hinton, L., Carter, K., Reed, B., Beckett, L. A., Lara, E., DeCarli, C. S., & Mungas, D. (2010) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0b013e3181c1ee01 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationEducation and Diabetes in a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Population
Borrell, L. N., Dallo, F. J., & White, K. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.072884 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Themes in the Economics of Aging
(2001) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226903330.001.0001 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
A Verbal Learning and Memory Test for English- and Spanish-speaking Older Mexican-American Adults
González, H. M., Mungas, D., & Haan, M. N. (2002) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1076/clin.16.4.439.13908 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive Dyscontrol: An Important Factor Affecting the Level of Care Received by Older Retirees
Royall, D. R., Cabello, M. M., & Polk, M. J. (1998) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1998.tb01536.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Mungas, D., Reed, B., Farias, S. T., & DeCarli, C. S. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0013421 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationPredicting the rate of cognitive decline in aging and early Alzheimer disease
Adak, S., Illouz, K., Gorman, W., Tandon, R., Zimmerman, E. A., Guariglia, R., Moore, M. M., & Kaye, J. A. (2004) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000132520.69612.ab · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Mungas, D., Reed, B., Farias, S. T., & DeCarli, C. S. (2005) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617705050745 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding the pathology of vascular cognitive impairment
Jellinger, K. A. (2004) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2004.11.029 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Brain Behavior Relationships Among African Americans, Whites, and Hispanics
DeCarli, C. S., Reed, B., Jagust, W. J., Martinez, O., Ortega, M., & Mungas, D. (2008) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0b013e318185e7fe · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationDeCarli, C. S., Grady, C. L., Clark, C., Katz, D. A., Brady, D. R., Murphy, D., Haxby, J. V., Salerno, J. A., Gillette, J., Gonzalez-Aviles, A., et al. (1996) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.60.2.158 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationFrajese, G. V., Taylor, N., Jenkins, P. J., BESSER, G. M., & Monson, J. P. (2004) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000077135 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Do reading tests measure the same construct in multiethnic and multilingual older persons?
Cosentino, S., Manly, J. J., & Mungas, D. (2007) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617707070257 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationPharmacodynamic Considerations with Recombinant Human Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I in Children
Ferry, R. J., Cohen, P., & Katz, L. E. L. (2005) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000085682 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Soricelli, R. L. (2006) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-200611000-00014 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Utermohlen, W. (2006) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.acm.0000242590.81252.b9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Biomarker Modeling of Alzheimer’s Disease
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Jack, C. R., Knopman, D. S., Weigand, S. D., Wiste, H. J., Vemuri, P., Lowe, V., Kantarci, K., Gunter, J. L., Senjem, M. L., Ivnik, R. J., et al. (2012) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.22628 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
Brain β-amyloid load approaches a plateau
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Episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer disease: Insights from imaging and behavioral studies
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Prediction of brain age and cognitive age: quantifying brain and cognitive maintenance in aging
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A task-invariant cognitive reserve network
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Cognitive Activities During Adulthood Are More Important than Education in Building Reserve
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Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer's disease
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- Authors
- Reed, B. R., Mungas, D., Farias, S. T., Harvey, D., Beckett, L., Widaman, K., Hinton, L., & DeCarli, C.
- Affiliations
- VA Northern California Health Care System (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-06-30
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2196-2209
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- PMC
- PMC3139935
- OpenAlex
- W2128035066
- Cited by
- 271
- References
- 108
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 7.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- California Department of Public Health
- National Institute on Aging (AG021028, AG 10220, P30AG010129, R01AG021028, AG031563, AG-10129, R01AG010220, R01AG031563)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS017950)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, episodic memory, variance decomposition, latent variable models, brain atrophy, mild cognitive impairment, conversion to dementia, executive function decline, cognitive decline, neuropathology, later adulthood, structural MRI
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aging, Brain, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Dementia, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Hippocampus, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Memory, Memory Disorders, Models, Psychological, Neuropsychological Tests, Organ Size, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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