An overview of geoengineering of climate using stratospheric sulphate aerosols
Abstract
We provide an overview of geoengineering by stratospheric sulphate aerosols. The state of understanding about this topic as of early 2008 is reviewed, summarizing the past 30 years of work in the area, highlighting some very recent studies using climate models, and discussing methods used to deliver sulphur species to the stratosphere. The studies reviewed here suggest that sulphate aerosols can counteract the globally averaged temperature increase associated with increasing greenhouse gases, and reduce changes to some other components of the Earth system. There are likely to be remaining regional climate changes after geoengineering, with some regions experiencing significant changes in temperature or precipitation. The aerosols also serve as surfaces for heterogeneous chemistry resulting in increased ozone depletion. The delivery of sulphur species to the stratosphere in a way that will produce particles of the right size is shown to be a complex and potentially very difficult task. Two simple delivery scenarios are explored, but similar exercises will be needed for other suggested delivery mechanisms. While the introduction of the geoengineering source of sulphate aerosol will perturb the sulphur cycle of the stratosphere signicantly, it is a small perturbation to the total (stratosphere and troposphere) sulphur cycle. The geoengineering source would thus be a small contributor to the total global source of ‘acid rain’ that could be compensated for through improved pollution control of anthropogenic tropospheric sources. Some areas of research remain unexplored. Although ozone may be depleted, with a consequent increase to solar ultraviolet-B (UVB) energy reaching the surface and a potential impact on health and biological populations, the aerosols will also scatter and attenuate this part of the energy spectrum, and this may compensate the UVB enhancement associated with ozone depletion. The aerosol will also change the ratio of diffuse to direct energy reaching the surface, and this may influence ecosystems. The impact of geoengineering on these components of the Earth system has not yet been studied. Representations for the formation, evolution and removal of aerosol and distribution of particle size are still very crude, and more work will be needed to gain confidence in our understanding of the deliberate production of this class of aerosols and their role in the climate system.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The primary candidate methods for geoengineering are marine cloud brightening, cirrus thinning, and stratospheric aerosol injection.
“The primary candidate methods for geoengineering are marine cloud brightening [396] (making low-lying clouds more reflective), cirrus thinning [759] (making high-flying clouds trap less heat), and stratospheric aerosol injection [668] (which we discuss below).”
From Tackling climate change with machine learning (2023) · cites this paper as [668]
Cites
Climate change 2007: the physical science basis
Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Marquis, M. C., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., Miller, H. L., & Chen, Z. (2007) · Cited by 23,398 · see citing works
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.
Schiavon, S., & Zecchin, R. (2007) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 16,994 · see citing works
Volcanic eruptions and climate
Robock, A. (2000) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/1998rg000054 · Cited by 2,806 · see citing works
Self-citationDescription of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0)
Collins, W. D., Rasch, P., Boville, A. E., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, L., Kiehl, J., Briegleb, B. P., Bitz, C. M., Lin, S., Zhang, M., et al. (2004) · doi:10.5065/d63n21ch · Cited by 2,209 · see citing works
Self-citationStratospheric ozone depletion: A review of concepts and history
Solomon, S. (1999) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/1999rg900008 · Cited by 2,008 · see citing works
Albedo enhancement by stratospheric sulfur injections: a contribution to resolve a policy dilemma?
Crutzen, P. J. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y · Cited by 1,541 · see citing works
The Formulation and Atmospheric Simulation of the Community Atmosphere Model Version 3 (CAM3)
Collins, W. D., Rasch, P. J., Boville, B. A., Hack, J. J., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, D. L., Briegleb, B. P., Bitz, C. M., Lin, S., & Zhang, M. (2006) · Journal of Climate · doi:10.1175/jcli3760.1 · Cited by 922 · see citing works
Self-citationSchmidt, G. A., Ruedy, R. A., Hansen, J. E., Aleinov, I., Bell, N., Bauer, M., Bauer, S. E., Cairns, B., Canuto, V. M., Cheng, Y., et al. (2006) · Journal of Climate · doi:10.1175/jcli3612.1 · Cited by 903 · see citing works
Energy implications of future stabilization of atmospheric CO2 content
Hoffert, M. I., Caldeira, K., Jain, A. K., Haites, E. F., Harvey, L. D. D., Potter, S. D., Schlesinger, M. E., Schneider, S. H., Watts, R. G., Wigley, T. M. L., et al. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/27638 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Response of a Deciduous Forest to the Mount Pinatubo Eruption: Enhanced Photosynthesis
Gu, L., Baldocchi, D., Wofsy, S. C., Munger, J. W., Michalsky, J., Urbanski, S. P., & Boden, T. A. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1078366 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
G<scp>EOENGINEERING THE</scp> C<scp>LIMATE</scp>: History and Prospect
Keith, D. W. (2000) · Annual Review of Energy and the Environment · doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.245 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
UV repair and resistance to solar UV-B in amphibianeggs: a link to population declines?
Blaustein, A. R., Hoffman, P. D., Hokit, D. G., Kiesecker, J. M., Walls, S. C., & Hays, J. B. (1994) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.91.5.1791 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Effects of Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption on the hydrological cycle as an analog of geoengineering
Trenberth, K. E., & Dai, A. (2007) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2007gl030524 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Kinnison, D. E., Brasseur, G. P., Walters, S., Garcia, R. R., Marsh, D. R., Sassi, F., Harvey, V. L., Randall, C. E., Emmons, L., Lamarque, J. F., et al. (2007) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2006jd007879 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Regional climate responses to geoengineering with tropical and Arctic SO 2 injections
Robock, A. D., Oman, L. D., & Stenchikov, G. L. (2008) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2008jd010050 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Self-citationChange, I. P. O. C. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511546013.003 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Radiative forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption
Stenchikov, G. L., Kirchner, I., Robock, A. D., Graf, H., Antuña, J. C., Grainger, R. G., Lambert, A., & Thomason, L. W. (1998) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/98jd00693 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Self-citationA Combined Mitigation-Geoengineering Approach to Climate Stabilization
Wigley, T. M. L. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1131728 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Yu, F., & TURCO, R. P. (2001) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2000jd900539 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Self-citationThe South Asian Summer Monsoon and Its Relationship with ENSO in the IPCC AR4 Simulations
Annamalai, H., Hamilton, K., & Sperber, K. R. (2007) · Journal of Climate · doi:10.1175/jcli4035.1 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Self‐limiting physical and chemical effects in volcanic eruption clouds
Pinto, J. P., TURCO, R. P., & Toon, O. B. (1989) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/jd094id08p11165 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Self-citation20 reasons why geoengineering may be a bad idea
Robock, A. D. (2008) · Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists · doi:10.2968/064002006 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Self-citationMontzka, S. A., Calvert, P., Hall, B. D., Elkins, J. W., Conway, T. J., Tans, P. P., & Sweeney, C. (2007) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2006jd007665 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Stenchikov, G. L., Robock, A. D., Ramaswamy, V., Schwarzkopf, M. D., Hamilton, K., & Ramachandran, S. (2002) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd002090 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Self-citationRasch, P. J., Crutzen, P. J., & Coleman, D. B. (2008) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2007gl032179 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Self-citationTransient climate–carbon simulations of planetary geoengineering
Matthews, H. D., & Caldeira, K. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0700419104 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
The Sensitivity of Polar Ozone Depletion to Proposed Geoengineering Schemes
Tilmes, S., Müller, R., & Salawitch, R. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1153966 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Self-citationGeoengineering Earth's radiation balance to mitigate CO2‐induced climate change
Bala, G., & Caldeira, K. (2000) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/1999gl006086 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
OCS, stratospheric aerosols and climate
TURCO, R. P., Whitten, R. C., Toon, O. B., Pollack, J. B., & Hamill, P. (1980) · Nature · doi:10.1038/283283a0 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Self-citation20 reasons why geoengineering may be a bad idea
Robock, A. D., Jerch, K., & Bunzl, M. (2008) · Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists · doi:10.1080/00963402.2008.11461140 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Self-citationClimatic response to high‐latitude volcanic eruptions
Oman, L. D., Robock, A. D., Stenchikov, G. L., Schmidt, G. A., & Ruedy, R. A. (2005) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2004jd005487 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Self-citationArctic Oscillation response to volcanic eruptions in the IPCC AR4 climate models
Stenchikov, G. L., Hamilton, K., Stouffer, R. J., Robock, A. D., Ramaswamy, V., Santer, B. D., & Graf, H. (2006) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2005jd006286 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Self-citationBudyko, M. I. (1977) · Special publications · doi:10.1029/sp010 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
High‐latitude eruptions cast shadow over the African monsoon and the flow of the Nile
Oman, L., Robock, A., Stenchikov, G. L., & Thordarson, T. (2006) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2006gl027665 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Self-citationRasch, P. J., Barth, M. C., Kiehl, J. T., Schwartz, S. E., & Benkovitz, C. M. (2000) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/1999jd900777 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Self-citationEmission Measurements of the Concorde Supersonic Aircraft in the Lower Stratosphere
Fahey, D. W., Keim, E. R., Boering, K. A., Brock, C. A., Wilson, J. C., Jonsson, H. H., Anthony, S. E., Hanisco, T. F., Wennberg, P. O., Miake‐Lye, R. C., et al. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.270.5233.70 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
When will the Antarctic ozone hole recover?
Newman, P. A., Nash, E. R., Kawa, S. R., Montzka, S. A., & Schauffler, S. M. (2006) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2005gl025232 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Madronich, S., & de Gruijl, F. R. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/366023a0 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Modeling the distribution of the volcanic aerosol cloud from the 1783–1784 Laki eruption
Oman, L. D., Robock, A. D., Stenchikov, G. L., Thordarson, T., Koch, D. M., Shindell, D. T., & Gao, C. (2006) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2005jd006899 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationDilution of aircraft exhaust plumes at cruise altitudes
Schumann, U., Schlager, H., Arnold, F. H., Baumann, R., Haschberger, P., & Klemm, O. (1998) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/s1352-2310(97)00455-x · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The role of ions in the formation and evolution of particles in aircraft plumes
Yu, F., & TURCO, R. P. (1997) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/97gl01822 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Formulation and Atmospheric Simulation of the Community Atmosphere Model: CAM3
Collins, W. D., Rasch, P. J., Boville, B. A., Hack, J. J., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, D. L., Briegleb, B. P., Bitz, C. M., & Zhang, M. (2005) · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationGeoengineering Earth's radiation balance to mitigate climate change from a quadrupling of CO2
Bala, G., Caldeira, K., & Duffy, P. B. (2003) · Global and Planetary Change · doi:10.1016/s0921-8181(02)00195-9 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Friedl, R. R. (1997) · NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Geoengineering: Encouraging Research and Overseeing Implementation
Cicerone, R. J. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9102-x · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Aerosol dynamics in near‐field aircraft plumes
Brown, R. C., Miake‐Lye, R. C., Anderson, M. R., Kolb, C. E., & Resch, T. J. (1996) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/96jd01918 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Bauman, J. J., Russell, P. B., Geller, M. A., & Hamill, P. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd002993 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Chemical ozone loss in the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere between 1992 and 2005
Tilmes, S., Muller, R. H., Engel, A., Rex, M., & Russell, J. M. (2006) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2006gl026925 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationGeoengineering: Worthy of Cautious Evaluation?
MacCracken, M. C. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9130-6 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Impact of geoengineering schemes on the terrestrial biosphere
Bala, G., Thompson, S. L., Duffy, P. B., Caldeira, K., & Delire, C. (2002) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2002gl015911 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Yu, F., & TURCO, R. P. (1998) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/98jd02453 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationDispersion of aircraft exhausts in the free atmosphere
Dürbeck, T., & Gerz, T. (1996) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/96jd02217 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Meteorology in America, 1800-1870
Fleming, J. R. (2000) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.56021/9780801839580 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Biological effectiveness of solar UV radiation in humans
Ambach, W., & Blumthaler, M. (1993) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf01923543 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Geoengineering climate Change: Treating the symptom over the cause?
Kiehl, J. T. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9132-4 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Geo-Engineering to Confine Climate Change: Is it at all Feasible?
Bengtsson, L. O. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9133-3 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Yu, F., & TURCO, R. P. (1998) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/97gl03695 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationTURCO, R. P., Hamill, P., Toon, O. B., Whitten, R. C., & Kiang, C. S. (1979) · NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationEnhancements in biologically effective ultraviolet radiation following volcanic eruptions
Vogelmann, A. M., Ackerman, T. P., & TURCO, R. P. (1992) · Nature · doi:10.1038/359047a0 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationArnold, F. H., Kiendler‐Scharr, A., Wiedemer, V., Aberle, S., Stilp, T., & Busen, R. (2000) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/1999gl011096 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Aerosol invariance in expanding coagulating plumes
TURCO, R. P., & Yu, F. (1997) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/97gl01092 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Geoengineering Dilemma: To Speak or not to Speak
Lawrence, M. G. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9131-5 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
A unified model for ultrafine aircraft particle emissions
Kärcher, B., TURCO, R. P., Yu, F., Danilin, M. Y., Weisenstein, D. K., Miake‐Lye, R. C., & Busen, R. (2000) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2000jd900531 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationSteele, H. M., & TURCO, R. P. (1997) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/97jd01263 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationChemical ozone loss in the Arctic winter 1991–1992
Tilmes, S., Muller, R. H., Salawitch, R. J., Schmidt, U., Webster, C. R., Oelhaf, H., Camy-Peyret, C., & Russell, J. M. (2008) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-8-1897-2008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationWorkshop Report on Managing Solar Radiation
Lane, L. L., Caldeira, K., Chatfield, R. B., & Langhoff, S. R. (2007) · NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) · Cited by 30 · see citing works
TURCO, R. P., & Yu, F. (1999) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/1999jd900321 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysical, chemical, and ultraviolet radiative characteristics of aerosol in central Alaska
Wetzel, M. A., Shaw, G. E., Slusser, J. R., Borys, R. D., & Cahill, C. F. (2003) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2002jd003208 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Yu, F., & TURCO, R. P. (1999) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/1999gl900324 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationAerosol size distribution in a coagulating plume: Analytical behavior and modeling applications
TURCO, R. P., & Yu, F. (1998) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/98gl00324 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationChemical ozone loss in the Arctic winter 1991–1992Preprint
Tilmes, S., Muller, R. H., Salawitch, R. J., et al. (2007) · doi:10.5194/acpd-7-10097-2007 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationSummary Discussion and Conclusions
Likens, G. E. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7810-2_8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A model for the simulation of turbulent and eddy diffusion processes at heights of 0–65 km
Justus, C. G., & Mani, K. K. (1978) · Pure and Applied Geophysics · doi:10.1007/bf00876631 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Horizon scan of global conservation issues for 2011
Sutherland, W. J., Bardsley, S., Bennun, L., Clout, M. N., Côté, I. M., Depledge, M. H., Dicks, L. V., Dobson, A. P., Fellman, L., & Fleishman, E. (2010) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.11.002 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
The Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP)
Kravitz, B., Robock, A. D., Boucher, O., Schmidt, H., Taylor, K. E., Stenchikov, G. L., & Schulz, M. (2011) · Atmospheric Science Letters · doi:10.1002/asl.316 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, K. R., Jerrett, M., Anderson, H. R., Burnett, R. T., Stone, V., Derwent, R. G., Atkinson, R. W., Cohen, A., Shonkoff, S. B. C., Krewski, D. R., et al. (2009) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61716-5 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Integrated Risk and Uncertainty Assessment of Climate Change Response Policies
Change, I. P. O. C. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107415416.008 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
A ‘rare biosphere’ microorganism contributes to sulfate reduction in a peatland
Pester, M., Bittner, N., Deevong, P., Wagner, M., & Loy, A. (2010) · The ISME Journal · doi:10.1038/ismej.2010.75 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Modeling the climatic effects of large explosive volcanic eruptions
Timmreck, C. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.192 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Benefits, risks, and costs of stratospheric geoengineering
Robock, A. D., Marquardt, A. B., Kravitz, B., & Stenchikov, G. L. (2009) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2009gl039209 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Self-citationA horizon scan of global conservation issues for 2010
Sutherland, W. J., Clout, M. N., Côté, I. M., Daszak, P., Depledge, M. H., Fellman, L., Fleishman, E., Garthwaite, R., GIBBONS, D. W., Lurio, J. D., et al. (2009) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.10.003 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Tackling climate change with machine learning
Rolnick, D., Donti, P. L., Kaack, L. H., Kochanski, K., Lacoste, A., Sankaran, K., Ross, A. S., Milojevic-Dupont, N., Jaques, N., Waldman-Brown, A., et al. (2023) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3485128 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Tilmes, S., Fasullo, J., Lamarque, J., Marsh, D. R., Mills, M., Alterskjær, K., Muri, H., Kristjánsson, J. E., Boucher, O., Schulz, M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/jgrd.50868 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Self-citationClimate model response from the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP)
Kravitz, B., Caldeira, K., Boucher, O., Robock, A. D., Rasch, P. J., Alterskjær, K., Karam, D. B., Cole, J. N. S., Curry, C. L., Haywood, J., et al. (2013) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/jgrd.50646 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Self-citationA review of climate geoengineering proposals
Vaughan, N. E., & Lenton, T. M. (2011) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0027-7 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
The impact of geoengineering aerosols on stratospheric temperature and ozone
Heckendorn, P., Weisenstein, D., Fueglistaler, S., Luo, B. P., Rozanov, E., Schraner, M., Thomason, L. W., & Peter, T. (2009) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045108 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) simulations of climate following volcanic eruptions
Driscoll, S., Bozzo, A., Gray, L. J., Robock, A. D., & Stenchikov, G. L. (2012) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2012jd017607 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Self-citationCaldeira, K., Bala, G., & Cao, L. (2013) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-042711-105548 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
An overview of the Earth system science of solar geoengineering
Irvine, P. J., Kravitz, B., Lawrence, M. G., & Muri, H. (2016) · WIREs Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.423 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Efficiency of short-lived halogens at influencing climate through depletion of stratospheric ozone
Hossaini, R., Chipperfield, M., Montzka, S., Rap, A., Dhomse, S., & Feng, W. (2015) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2363 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Simpson, I. R., Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Mills, M. J., Fasullo, J. T., & Pendergrass, A. G. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2019jd031093 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Self-citationImpact of geoengineered aerosols on the troposphere and stratosphere
Tilmes, S., Garcia, R. R., Kinnison, D. E., Gettelman, A., & Rasch, P. J. (2009) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2008jd011420 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Self-citationObservations of the eruption of the Sarychev volcano and simulations using the HadGEM2 climate model
Haywood, J., Jones, A., Clarisse, L., Bourassa, A., Barnes, J. E., Telford, P. J., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Agnew, P., Clerbaux, C., et al. (2010) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2010jd014447 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Climate Change Challenge: A Review of the Barriers and Solutions to Deliver a Paris Solution
Santos, F. D., Ferreira, P. L., & Pedersen, J. S. T. (2022) · Climate · doi:10.3390/cli10050075 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Cost analysis of stratospheric albedo modification delivery systems
McClellan, J., Keith, D. W., & Apt, J. (2012) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034019 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Sea-going hardware for the cloud albedo method of reversing global warming
Salter, S. H., Sortino, G., & Latham, J. (2008) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0136 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
The Risk of Termination Shock From Solar Geoengineering
Parker, A., & Irvine, P. J. (2018) · Earth's Future · doi:10.1002/2017ef000735 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Pierce, J. R., Weisenstein, D. K., Heckendorn, P., Peter, T., & Keith, D. W. (2010) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2010gl043975 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Formation and fate of oxidized mercury in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere
Lyman, S. N., & Jaffe, D. A. (2011) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo1353 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Assessing Transformation Pathways
(2015) · Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107415416.012 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationThe economics (or lack thereof) of aerosol geoengineering
Góes, M., Tuana, N., & Keller, K. M. (2011) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-010-9961-z · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Observations of the chemical composition of stratospheric aerosol particles
Murphy, D. M., Froyd, K. D., Schwarz, J. P., & Wilson, J. C. (2014) · Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society · doi:10.1002/qj.2213 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Ramaswamy, V., Collins, W. D., Haywood, J., Lean, J. L., Mahowald, N. M., Myhre, G., Naïk, V., Shine, K. P., Soden, B. J., Stenchikov, G. L., et al. (2019) · Meteorological Monographs · doi:10.1175/amsmonographs-d-19-0001.1 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationStratospheric Dynamical Response and Ozone Feedbacks in the Presence of SO <sub>2</sub> Injections
Richter, J. H., Tilmes, S., Mills, M. J., Tribbia, J. J., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Vitt, F., & Lamarque, J. (2017) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2017jd026912 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationKravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., Mills, M. J., Cheng, W., Dagon, K., Glanville, A. A., Lamarque, J., Simpson, I. R., et al. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2019jd030329 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationGeoengineering by cloud seeding: influence on sea ice and climate system
Rasch, P. J., Latham, J., & Chen, C. (2009) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045112 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Coming Global Climate–Technology Revolution
Barrett, S. A. (2009) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.23.2.53 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Crop yields in a geoengineered climate
Pongratz, J., Lobell, D. B., Cao, L., & Caldeira, K. (2012) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate1373 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Gardiner, S. M. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195399622.003.0026 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Geoengineering as an optimization problem
Ban‐Weiss, G., & Caldeira, K. (2010) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034009 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Stratospheric aerosol particles and solar-radiation management
Pope, F. D., Braesicke, P., Grainger, R. G., Kalberer, M., Watson, I. M., Davidson, P. J., & Cox, R. A. (2012) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate1528 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Stratospheric sulfate aerosol geoengineering could alter the high-latitude seasonal cycle
Jiang, J., Cao, L., MacMartin, D. G., Simpson, I. R., Kravitz, B., Cheng, W., Visioni, D., Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., & Mills, M. J. (2019) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2019gl085758 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationInitiation of Snowball Earth with volcanic sulfur aerosol emissions
Macdonald, F. A., & Wordsworth, R. (2017) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1002/2016gl072335 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Uncertainty and the basis for confidence in solar geoengineering research
Kravitz, B., & MacMartin, D. G. (2020) · Nature Reviews Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43017-019-0004-7 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Weakened tropical circulation and reduced precipitation in response to geoengineering
Ferraro, A. J., Highwood, E. J., & Charlton-Perez, A. J. (2014) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/1/014001 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The Climate Change Crisis: A Review of Its Causes and Possible Responses
Gabric, A. J. (2023) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos14071081 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
State dependence of CO 2 forcing and its implications for climate sensitivity
He, H., Kramer, R. J., Soden, B. J., & Jeevanjee, N. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abq6872 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Sulfuric acid deposition from stratospheric geoengineering with sulfate aerosols
Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Oman, L., Stenchikov, G., & Marquardt, A. B. (2009) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2009jd011918 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationClimate engineering responses to climate emergencies
Battisti, D. S., Blackstock, J. J., Caldeira, K., Eardley, D. E., Katz, J. I., Keith, D. W., Koonin, S. E., Patrinos, A. A. N., Schrag, D. P., & Socolow, R. H. (2009) · IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · doi:10.1088/1755-1307/6/5/452015 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Jones, A. C., Haywood, J., Boucher, O., Kravitz, B., & Robock, A. D. (2010) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-10-5999-2010 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationDykema, J. A., Keith, D. W., Anderson, J. G., & Weisenstein, D. (2014) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0059 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Microphysical simulations of new particle formation in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere
English, J. M., Toon, O. B., Mills, M. J., & Yu, F. (2011) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-11-9303-2011 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
12 years of 7Be and 210Pb in Mt. Cimone, and their correlation with meteorological parameters
Tositti, L., Brattich, E., Cinelli, G., & Baldacci, D. (2014) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.01.014 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Stratospheric sulfate geoengineering could enhance the terrestrial photosynthesis rate
Xia, L., Robock, A., Tilmes, S., & Neely III, R. R. (2016) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-16-1479-2016 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationAn empirical model of global climate – Part 1: A critical evaluation of volcanic cooling
Canty, T. P., Mascioli, N. R., Smarte, M. D., & Salawitch, R. J. (2013) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-13-3997-2013 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Ecosystem Impacts of Geoengineering: A Review for Developing a Science Plan
Russell, L. M., Rasch, P. J., Mace, G. M., Jackson, R. B., Shepherd, J. G., Liss, P. S., Leinen, M., SCHIMEL, D. S., Vaughan, N. E., Janetos, A. C., et al. (2012) · AMBIO · doi:10.1007/s13280-012-0258-5 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationStratospheric heating by potential geoengineering aerosols: HEATING BY GEOENGINEERING AEROSOLS
Ferraro, A. J., Highwood, E. J., & Charlton-Perez, A. J. (2011) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2011gl049761 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Bègue, N., Vignelles, D., Berthet, G., Portafaix, T., Payen, G., Jégou, F., Benchérif, H., Jumelet, J., Vernier, J., Lurton, T., et al. (2017) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-15019-2017 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Temperature thresholds for chlorine activation and ozone loss in the polar stratosphere
Drdla, K., & Muller, R. H. (2012) · Annales Geophysicae · doi:10.5194/angeo-30-1055-2012 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Seasonally Modulated Tropical Drought Induced by Volcanic Aerosol
Joseph, R., & Zeng, N. (2009) · Journal of Climate · doi:10.1175/2009jcli3170.1 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Challenges for the recovery of the ozone layer
Fang, X., Pyle, J. A., Chipperfield, M. P., Daniel, J. S., Park, S., & Prinn, R. G. (2019) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0422-7 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Record solar UV irradiance in the tropical Andes
Cabrol, N. A., Feister, U., Häder, D.-P., Piazena, H., Grin, E. A., & Klein, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Environmental Science · doi:10.3389/fenvs.2014.00019 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
100 Years of Progress in Cloud Physics, Aerosols, and Aerosol Chemistry Research
Kreidenweis, S. M., Petters, M. D., & Lohmann, U. (2019) · Meteorological Monographs · doi:10.1175/amsmonographs-d-18-0024.1 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Kalidindi, S., Bala, G., Modak, A., & Caldeira, K. (2014) · Climate Dynamics · doi:10.1007/s00382-014-2240-3 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
On the Design of an International Governance Framework for Geoengineering
Lloyd, I. D., & Oppenheimer, M. (2014) · Global Environmental Politics · doi:10.1162/glep_a_00228 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Coral bleaching under unconventional scenarios of climate warming and ocean acidification
Kwiatkowski, L., Cox, P. M., Halloran, P. R., Mumby, P. J., & Wiltshire, A. (2015) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2655 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Impacts of stratospheric sulfate geoengineering on tropospheric ozone
Xia, L., Nowack, P. J., Tilmes, S., & Robock, A. (2017) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-11913-2017 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationHow Does a Pinatubo‐Size Volcanic Cloud Reach the Middle Stratosphere?
Stenchikov, G., Ukhov, A., Osipov, S., Ahmadov, R., Grell, G., Cady-Pereira, K., Mlawer, E., & Iacono, M. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2020jd033829 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationXia, L., Robock, A. D., Cole, J. N. S., Curry, C. L., Ji, D., Jones, A., Kravitz, B., Moore, J. C., Muri, H., Niemeier, U., et al. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2013jd020630 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationSolar geoengineering, uncertainty, and the price of carbon
Heutel, G., Moreno‐Cruz, J., & Shayegh, S. (2017) · Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2017.11.002 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
An overview of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP)
Kravitz, B., Robock, A. D., Forster, P. M. D. F., Haywood, J., Lawrence, M. G., & Schmidt, H. (2013) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2013jd020569 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationClimatic impacts of stratospheric geoengineering with sulfate, black carbon and titania injection
Jones, A. C., Haywood, J. M., & Jones, A. (2016) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-16-2843-2016 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Kokkola, H., Hommel, R., Kazil, J., Niemeier, U., Partanen, A., Feichter, J., & Timmreck, C. (2009) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-2-97-2009 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ferraro, A. J., Charlton-Perez, A. J., & Highwood, E. J. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2014jd022734 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Jones, A., Haywood, J., Jones, A. C., Tilmes, S., Kravitz, B., & Robock, A. D. (2021) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-21-1287-2021 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationTilmes, S., Kinnison, D. E., Garcia, R. R., Salawitch, R., Canty, T., Lee-Taylor, J., Madronich, S., & Chance, K. (2012) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-12-10945-2012 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationStratospheric ozone changes under solar geoengineering: implications for UV exposure and air quality
Nowack, P. J., Abraham, N. L., Braesicke, P., & Pyle, J. A. (2016) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-16-4191-2016 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Chouza, F., Leblanc, T., Barnes, J. E., Brewer, M. A., Wang, P., & Koon, D. (2020) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-20-6821-2020 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Visioni, D., Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Tilmes, S., Haywood, J., Boucher, O., Lawrence, M., Irvine, P., Niemeier, U., Xia, L., et al. (2023) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-5149-2023 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationPerryman, M. A. C. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511994852.011 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Yu, X., Moore, J. C., Cui, X., Rinke, A., Ji, D., Kravitz, B., & Yoon, J. (2015) · Global and Planetary Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.02.010 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
On the Role of Climate Forcing by Volcanic Sulphate and Volcanic Ash
Langmann, B. (2014) · Advances in Meteorology · doi:10.1155/2014/340123 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Gu, Y., Liao, H., & Bian, J. (2016) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-16-6641-2016 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Human Rights and Precautionary Principle: Limits to Geoengineering, SRM, and IPCC Scenarios
Wieding, J., Stubenrauch, J., & Ekardt, F. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12218858 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Hulme, M. (2012) · Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment · doi:10.1177/0309133312456414 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The impact of geoengineering on vegetation in experiment G1 of the GeoMIP
Glienke, S., Irvine, P. J., & Lawrence, M. G. (2015) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2015jd024202 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Public perceptions of climate geoengineering: a systematic review of the literature
Cummings, C. L., Lin, S., & Trump, B. (2017) · Climate Research · doi:10.3354/cr01475 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
On the possible use of geoengineering to moderate specific climate change impacts
MacCracken, M. C. (2009) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045107 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Laakso, A., Kokkola, H., Partanen, A.-I., Niemeier, U., Timmreck, C., Lehtinen, K. E. J., Hakkarainen, H., & Korhonen, H. (2016) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-16-305-2016 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Towards Integrated Ethical and Scientific Analysis of Geoengineering: A Research Agenda
Tuana, N., Sriver, R. L., Svoboda, T. J., Olson, R., Irvine, P. J., Haqq-Misra, J. D., & Keller, K. M. (2012) · Ethics Policy & Environment · doi:10.1080/21550085.2012.685557 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Arctic cryosphere response in the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project G3 and G4 scenarios
Berdahl, M., Robock, A. D., Ji, D., Moore, J. C., Jones, A., Kravitz, B., & Watanabe, S. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2013jd020627 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationSensitivity of Total Column Ozone to Stratospheric Sulfur Injection Strategies
Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Glanville, A. A., Visioni, D., Kinnison, D. E., & Muller, R. H. (2021) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2021gl094058 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationPublic Policy: Why ethics matters
Boston, J., Bradstock, A., & Eng, D. (2010) · ANU Press eBooks · doi:10.26530/oapen_459474 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Climate tipping points and solar geoengineering
Heutel, G., Moreno‐Cruz, J., & Shayegh, S. (2016) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2016.07.002 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Kravitz, B., Robock, A. D., Shindell, D. T., & Miller, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2011jd017341 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationThe fate of the Greenland Ice Sheet in a geoengineered, high CO 2 world
Irvine, P. J., Lunt, D. J., Stone, E. J., & Ridgwell, A. J. (2009) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045109 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Simultaneous stabilization of global temperature and precipitation through cocktail geoengineering
Cao, L., Duan, L., Bala, G., & Caldeira, K. (2017) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1002/2017gl074281 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Sulfate aerosol geoengineering: the question of justice
Svoboda, T. J., Keller, K. M., Goes, M. P., & Tuana, N. (2011) · DigitalCommons - Fairfield (Fairfield University) · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Haywood, J., Jones, A., Jones, A. C., Halloran, P. R., & Rasch, P. J. (2023) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-15305-2023 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationMIPAS observations of volcanic sulfate aerosol and sulfur dioxide in the stratosphere
Günther, A., Höpfner, M., Sinnhuber, B., Griessbach, S. G., Deshler, T., von Clarmann, T., & Stiller, G. P. (2018) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-18-1217-2018 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Geoengineering: The good, the MAD, and the sensible
Schellnhuber, H. J. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1115966108 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Smoke and Mirrors: Some Reflections on the Science and Politics of Geoengineering
Humphreys, D. (2011) · The Journal of Environment & Development · doi:10.1177/1070496511405302 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Negligible climatic effects from the 2008 Okmok and Kasatochi volcanic eruptions
Kravitz, B., Robock, A. D., & Bourassa, A. (2010) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2009jd013525 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Rasch, P. J., Tilmes, S., Turco, R. P., Robock, A., Oman, L., Chen, C.-C. (., Stenchikov, G. L., & Garcia, R. R.
- Affiliations
- NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- National Center for Atmospheric ResearchPO Box 3000-80307, Boulder, CO 80307, USA
- Corresponding author
- Rasch, Philip J
- ORCID
- Venue
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2008-08-29
- Volume
- 366
- Issue
- 1882
- Pages
- 4007-4037
- ISSN
- 1364-503X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-2962
- OpenAlex
- W2118726619
- Cited by
- 326
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 1.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric chemistry and aerosols
- Keywords
- solar geoengineering, sulphur cycle, climate change mitigation, global warming, ozone depletion, UV-B radiation, acid rain, aerosol particle size, regional climate impacts, precipitation change
- MeSH terms
- Aerosols, Atmosphere, Climate, Conservation of Natural Resources, Disasters, Engineering, Sulfates, Greenhouse Effect, Ecosystem
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
