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Memory Consolidation
Open accessAbstract
Conscious memory for a new experience is initially dependent on information stored in both the hippocampus and neocortex. Systems consolidation is the process by which the hippocampus guides the reorganization of the information stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes independent of the hippocampus. Early evidence for systems consolidation was provided by studies of retrograde amnesia, which found that damage to the hippocampus-impaired memories formed in the recent past, but typically spared memories formed in the more remote past. Systems consolidation has been found to occur for both episodic and semantic memories and for both spatial and nonspatial memories, although empirical inconsistencies and theoretical disagreements remain about these issues. Recent work has begun to characterize the neural mechanisms that underlie the dialogue between the hippocampus and neocortex (e.g., "neural replay," which occurs during sharp wave ripple activity). New work has also identified variables, such as the amount of preexisting knowledge, that affect the rate of consolidation. The increasing use of molecular genetic tools (e.g., optogenetics) can be expected to further improve understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying consolidation.
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“Humans do not treat every new situation as entirely unfamiliar; instead, they gradually summarize common structure from past episodes and organize it into abstractions through memory consolidation (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire et al., 2015; Dudai et al., 2015; Moscovitch et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2023; Bartlett, 1932).”
From Useful Memories Become Faulty When Continuously Updated by LLMs (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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“Cognitive theories of memory describe two complementary processes: a fast episodic system that stores individual experiences, and a slow process that extracts compact schemas -abstractions over many episodes that integrate with prior knowledge to support future generalization (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire et al., 2015; Dudai et al., 2015; Moscovitch et al., 2016).”
From Useful Memories Become Faulty When Continuously Updated by LLMs (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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“We observe that humans' performance steadily improves because each experience is (i) encoded as an episodic trace (Pritzel et al., 2017), (ii) distilled into abstract rules during sleep-dependent consolidation (Squire et al., 2015), (iii) selectively reinforced by dopamine-driven credit assignment (Glimcher, 2011), and (iv) retrieved through case- or analogy-based reasoning when similar problems”
From Memento: Fine-tuning LLM Agents without Fine-tuning LLMs (2025) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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“Human memory relies on complementary learning systems (McClelland et al., 1995), where memory consolidation (Squire et al., 2015) progressively transforms rapid episodic encoding into more stable semantic structures (Cowan et al., 2021).”
From TiMem: Temporal-Hierarchical Memory Consolidation for Long-Horizon Conversational Agents (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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“Human memory relies on complementary learning systems (McClelland et al., 1995), where memory consolidation (Squire et al., 2015) progressively transforms rapid episodic encoding into more stable semantic structures (Cowan et al., 2021).”
From TiMem: Temporal-Hierarchical Memory Consolidation for Long-Horizon Conversational Agents (2026) · cites this paper as Squire et al., 2015
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Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
Murre, J. M. J., & Dros, J. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120644 · Cited by 777
The hippocampal sharp wave-ripple in memory retrieval for immediate use and consolidation
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A contextual binding theory of episodic memory: systems consolidation reconsidered
Yonelinas, A. P., Ranganath, C., Ekstrom, A. D., & Wiltgen, B. J. (2019) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-019-0150-4 · Cited by 492
XMem: Long-Term Video Object Segmentation with an Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model
Cheng, H. K., & Schwing, A. G. (2022) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19815-1_37 · Cited by 449
Foster, D. J. (2017) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031538 · Cited by 375
“F or p er so na l u se o nl y. been interpreted as evidence in favor of a consolidation account of hippocampal replay (Squire et al. 2015), but if the hippocampus is not actually repeating patterns of previously experienced activity, then no amount of communication with cortex is going to support a…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Squire, L. R., Genzel, L., Wixted, J. T., & Morris, R. G.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Venue
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2015-08
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- a021766
- ISSN
- 1943-0264 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4526749
- OpenAlex
- W4247532959
- Cited by
- 700
- References
- 148
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 97 · 2024: 100 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 6
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
- U.S. Public Health Service (24600)
- National Institute of Mental Health (24600, Grant 24600)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- memory consolidation, systems consolidation, hippocampus, neocortex, retrograde amnesia, episodic memory, semantic memory, spatial memory, neural replay, sharp-wave ripples, optogenetics
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Hippocampus, Humans, Memory, Neocortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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