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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Olaru, G., Geiger, M., Brenneman, M. W., & Roberts, R. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01503 · Cited by 228
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe overlapping relationship between emotion perception and theory of mind
Mitchell, R. L. C., & Phillips, L. H. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.018 · Cited by 262
“, 2002) and ToM (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), indicating a likely point of interface between the two concepts.”
BackgroundAffective and cognitive empathy in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder
Mazza, M., Pino, M. C., Mariano, M., Tempesta, D., Ferrara, M., De Berardis, D., Masedu, F., & Valenti, M. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00791 · Cited by 225
“The Eyes Task is a revised version of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test” (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundDi Martino, A., Shehzad, Z., Kelly, C., Roy, A. K., Gee, D. G., Uddin, L. Q., Gotimer, K., Klein, D. F., Castellanos, F. X., & Milham, M. P. (2009) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121894 · Cited by 213
Empathizing, systemizing, and the extreme male brain theory of autism
Baron-Cohen, S. (2010) · Progress in Brain Research · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53630-3.00011-7 · Cited by 221
“Children with Asperger Syndrome tend to find such tests far more difficult (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), and the same is true when the adult test of Reading the Mind in the Eyes is used (Fig.”
InfluentialSelf-citationTomova, L., von Dawans, B., Heinrichs, M., Silani, G., & Lamm, C. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.02.006 · Cited by 224
“Socio-cognitive abilities were determined, using the perspective taking scale and the empathic concern scale from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983), the Emotion Contagion Scale (EC; Doherty, 1997), and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodAnckarsäter, H., Stahlberg, O., Larson, T., Hakansson, C., Jutblad, S.-B., Niklasson, L., Nydén, A., Wentz, E., Westergren, S., Cloninger, C. R., et al. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.1239 · Cited by 271
Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity
Mascaro, J. S., Rilling, J. K., Tenzin Negi, L., & Raison, C. L. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss095 · Cited by 223
A Systematic Review of Psychosocial Interventions for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Bishop, L., Minshew, N. J., & Eack, S. M. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1615-8 · Cited by 234
Effects of Literature on Empathy and Self-Reflection: A Theoretical-Empirical Framework
Koopman, E. M. (., & Hakemulder, F. (2015) · Journal of Literary Theory · doi:10.1515/jlt-2015-0005 · Cited by 218
Anagnostou, E., Jones, N., Huerta, M., Halladay, A. K., Wang, P., Scahill, L., Horrigan, J. P., Kasari, C., Lord, C., Choi, D., et al. (2015) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314542955 · Cited by 210
Aspects of social cognition in anorexia nervosa: Affective and cognitive theory of mind
Russell, T. A., Schmidt, U. H., Doherty, L., Young, V., & Tchanturia, K. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.10.028 · Cited by 217
“This was later extended to the concept of the “language of the eyes” and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME) task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHutchins, T. L., Prelock, P. A., & Bonazinga, L. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1244-7 · Cited by 214
“As noted in this paper’s introduction, several ‘advanced’ tests of ToM have been developed and have been useful in the study of individuals with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001; Beaumont and Sofronoff 2008; Happé 1994).”
Cognition in males and females with autism: similarities and differences
Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Chakrabarti, B., Wheelwright, S. J., Auyeung, B., Allison, C., MRC AIMS Consortium, & Baron-Cohen, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047198 · Cited by 217
Self-citationBRAIN MECHANISMS FOR SOCIAL PERCEPTION: LESSONS FROM AUTISM AND TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
Pelphrey, K., & Carter, E. J. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1416.007 · Cited by 228
Hall, J. K., Hutton, S. B., & Morgan, M. J. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930902906882 · Cited by 217
“Participants also completed the “Reading the Mind from the Eyes” task or Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001a ).”
BackgroundMethodI can see what you feel, but I can’t deal with it: impaired theory of mind in depression
Wolkenstein, L., Schönenberg, M., Schirm, E., & Hautzinger, M. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.02.010 · Cited by 209
“The revised version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was used to assess the decoding ability.”
MethodMeta-analysis of Theory of Mind (ToM) impairment in bipolar disorder
Bora, E., Bartholomeusz, C., & Pantelis, C. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715001993 · Cited by 216
“Most commonly used tasks were Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) and Faux pas recognition tasks (Stone et al.”
Lifespan development: The effects of typical aging on theory of mind
Moran, J. M. (2012) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.09.020 · Cited by 233
Attentional Bias, Emotion Recognition, and Emotion Regulation in Anorexia: State or Trait?
Harrison, A., Tchanturia, K., & Treasure, J. L. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.037 · Cited by 215
Henry, J. D., Phillips, L. H., Crawford, J. R., Ietswaart, M., & Summers, F. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.03.020 · Cited by 212
Hypermentalizing in Adolescent Inpatients: Treatment Effects and Association With Borderline Traits
Sharp, C., Ha, C., Carbone, C., Kim, S., Perry, K., Williams, L. L., & Fonagy, P. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.1.3 · Cited by 236
Impaired holistic coding of facial expression and facial identity in congenital prosopagnosia
Palermo, R., Willis, M., Rivolta, D., McKone, E., Wilson, C., & Calder, A. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.021 · Cited by 212
“…halves presented alone Table 1 Scores on the Ekman 60 Faces and Emotion Hexagon tests (Young et al., 2002), the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (1) for each of the prosopagnosics, and means and standard deviations for the…”
Executive function mechanisms of Theory of Mind
Ahmed, F. S., & Stephen Miller, L. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1087-7 · Cited by 211
“The RMET requires a participant to study the expressions of actors’ eyes and determine which emotion they are conveying from four possible choices ( Baron-Cohen et al. 2001 ).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGoldman, M. B., Marlow-O’Connor, M., Torres, I. J., & Carter, C. S. (2007) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.09.019 · Cited by 216
“Pictures were a subset of those from Ekman and Friesen (1976) previously used to demonstrate altered responses in facial affect discrimination in patients with amygdala pathology (Adolphs et al., 1999), autism (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and schizophrenia (Addington et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodCerebellar Contribution to Social Cognition
Hoche, F., Guell, X., Sherman, J. C., Vangel, M. G., & Schmahmann, J. D. (2015) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-015-0746-9 · Cited by 218
Bull, R., Phillips, L. H., & Conway, C. A. (2007) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.07.015 · Cited by 238
“In contrast, the Mind in the Eyes Test ( Baron-Cohen, Wheelright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ) requires recognition of emotional states from pictures of eyes, and does not require coordination of multiple perspectives or the integration of mental states with behaviours.”
Social‐cognition and the broad autism phenotype: identifying genetically meaningful phenotypes
Losh, M. C., & Piven, J. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01594.x · Cited by 209
“The revised version of the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) is an advanced theory of mind task in which 36 photographs depicting only the eye region of the face are presented along with 4 complex mental state words.”
MethodTheory of mind: The state of the art
Wellman, H. M. (2018) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2018.1435413 · Cited by 250
Wang, Y.-G., Wang, Y.-Q., Chen, S.-L., Zhu, C.-Y., & Wang, K. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.07.018 · Cited by 203
Cognitive impairment in substance use disorders
Ramey, T., & Regier, P. S. (2018) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852918001426 · Cited by 219
“173 For substance use disorders, recent meta-analysis of social cognition in alcohol use disorder showed a significant deficit in emotion recognition and cognitive ToM.”
MethodDo We Adopt the Intentional Stance Toward Humanoid Robots?
Marchesi, S., Ghiglino, D., Ciardo, F., Pérez-Osorio, J., Baykara, E., & Wykowska, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00450 · Cited by 197
Facial Emotion Processing in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Mitchell, A. E., Dickens, G. L., & Picchioni, M. (2014) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-014-9254-9 · Cited by 230
“Beyond basic facial emotion detection and recognition it may be that a subcomponent, ‘eye-reading’ ability, is central to complex social judgements and mental state appraisal for conditions such as guilt, admiration and flirtatiousness (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundOxytocin receptor genetic variation promotes human trust behavior
Krueger, F., Parasuraman, R., Iyengar, V., Thornburg, M., Weel, J., Lin, M., Clarke, E., McCabe, K., & Lipsky, R. H. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00004 · Cited by 207
“The reading the mind in the eyes test (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) is a standardized multiple-choice test that assesses individual differences in the ability to infer the mental states of strangers.”
Fusiform gyrus face-selectivity reflects facial recognition ability
Furl, N., Garrido, L., Dolan, R., Driver, J., & Duchaine, B. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21545 · Cited by 195
“80 Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, and Plumb ( 2001 ) Sequential expression matching 0.”
Intergroup differences in the sharing of emotive states: Neural evidence of an empathy gap
Gutsell, J. N., & Inzlicht, M. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr035 · Cited by 203
“We administered a second measure related to empathy reading the mind in the eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) a measure of mindreading and social sensitivity.”
MethodGarrett, A., & Johnson, K. A. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573745.003.0003 · Cited by 234
Self-face recognition and theory of mind in patients with schizophrenia and first-degree relatives
Irani, F., Platek, S. M., Panyavin, I. S., Calkins, M. E., Kohler, C. G., Siegel, S. J., Schachter, M. J., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2006) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.07.016 · Cited by 202
Are women the more empathetic gender? The effects of gender role expectations
Löffler, C. S., & Greitemeyer, T. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01260-8 · Cited by 252
Golan, O., Baron-Cohen, S., Hill, J. J., & Golan, Y. (2006) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910600980986 · Cited by 200
“Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b) The AQ is a self-report questionnaire, which measures the degree to which any individual (adult) of normal IQ possesses traits related to the autistic spectrum.”
BackgroundSelf-citationEmotional Theory of Mind and Emotional Awareness in Recovered Anorexia Nervosa Patients
Oldershaw, A., Hambrook, D. G., Tchanturia, K., Treasure, J. L., & Schmidt, U. H. (2009) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3181c6c7ca · Cited by 197
“Within RM Tasks There were significant RME differences for negative emotions (F(2,104) 5.1, p .008, 2 0.09); current AN patients were poorer than HCs (p .008, d 1.26).”
BackgroundInfluentialTheory of mind impairments in euthymic bipolar patients
Montag, C., Ehrlich, A., Neuhaus, K., Dziobek, I., Heekeren, H. R., Heinz, A., & Gallinat, J. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.08.017 · Cited by 208
A causal account of the brain network computations underlying strategic social behavior
Hill, C., Suzuki, S., Polanía, R., Moisa, M., O’Doherty, J. P., & Ruff, C. C. (2017) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.4602 · Cited by 196
Atypical Reflexive Gaze Patterns on Emotional Faces in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Kliemann, D., Dziobek, I., Hatri, A., Steimke, R., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0688-10.2010 · Cited by 212
Functional brain networks and white matter underlying theory-of-mind in autism
Kana, R. K., Libero, L. E., Hu, C. P., Deshpande, H. D., & Colburn, J. S. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss106 · Cited by 196
“Behavioral studies have illustrated that individuals with autism are characterized by long developmental delays in acquiring mentalizing skills (Happe, 1994; Kiln, 2000; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Roeyers et al., 2001) and that their ToM impairment is independent of task complexity or lower overall abilities (Perner et…”
BackgroundNeural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists
Marsh, A. A., Stoycos, S. A., Brethel-Haurwitz, K. M., Robinson, P., VanMeter, J. W., & Cardinale, E. M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1408440111 · Cited by 193
“To assess mentalizing, participants completed the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (23).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAction and Emotion Recognition from Point Light Displays: An Investigation of Gender Differences
Alaerts, K., Nackaerts, E., Meyns, P., Swinnen, S. P., & Wenderoth, N. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020989 · Cited by 207
“Performance on the ‘Biological Motion Recognition Test’, the ‘Emotion Recognition Test’, the ‘Control Color Test’ and the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test’ [47] was assessed for 15 males (mean age 27.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCanetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194
Niven, E., Newton, J. L., Foley, J. A., Colville, S., Swingler, R. J., Chandran, S., Bak, T. H., & Abrahams, S. (2015) · Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Degeneration · doi:10.3109/21678421.2015.1030430 · Cited by 194
“Fluency written Phonemic verbal fluency index (vFI) (8); words beginning with ‘S’* and 4-letter words beginning with ‘C’* Spoken Phonemic verbal fluency index (vFI) (8) ; words beginning with ‘P’*, ‘R’*, ‘w’* Executive Inhibition Hayling Sentence Completion Test (9): total unconnected errors (converted but not scaled)…”
MethodTest-retest reliability of the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test: a one-year follow-up study
Fernández-Abascal, E. G., Cabello, R., Fernández-Berrocal, P., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2013) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-4-33 · Cited by 187
“Measures The revised Eyes test [1] was used to generate a Spanish version of the Eyes test.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMeta-analysis of the effects of intranasal oxytocin on interpretation and expression of emotions
Leppanen, J., Ng, K. W., Tchanturia, K., & Treasure, J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.010 · Cited by 188
“In the RMET participants are presented with 36 photographs of eyes and asked to select one of four words that best describes the complex emotion displayed.”
MethodTheory of Mind Training in Children with Autism: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Begeer, S., Gevers, C., Clifford, P., Verhoeve, M., Kat, K., Hoddenbach, E., & Boer, F. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1121-9 · Cited by 148
Emotional competence in children with autism: Diagnostic criteria and empirical evidence
Begeer, S., Koot, H. M., Rieffe, C. J., Terwogt, M. M., & Stegge, H. (2008) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.09.001 · Cited by 212
Theory of Mind and Empathic Explanations of Machiavellianism
Bagozzi, R. P., Verbeke, W. J. M. I., Dietvorst, R. C., Belschak, F. D., van den Berg, W. E., & Rietdijk, W. J. R. (2013) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206312471393 · Cited by 200
Empathy, sex and fluid intelligence as predictors of theory of mind
Ibáñez, A. M., Huepe, D., Gempp, R., Gutiérrez, V. V., Rivera-Rei, Á. A., & Toledo, M. I. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.022 · Cited by 196
“First, we explored whether sex, along with high, average or low levels of empathy/FI, differentially affect ToM performance (assessed using the RMET).”
InfluentialSocial emotion recognition, social functioning, and attempted suicide in late-life depression
Szanto, K., Dombrovski, A. Y., Sahakian, B. J., Mulsant, B. H., Houck, P. R., Reynolds, C. F., & Clark, L. (2012) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e31820eea0c · Cited by 183
“Converging with these results, a study of depressed individuals (20) found that performance on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RME) (21,22), a widely used measure of complex social emotion recognition, was impaired in individuals with suicidal thoughts, anhedonia, and guilt, or “hopelessness depression”, but un…”
InfluentialThe role of the amygdala in atypical gaze on emotional faces in autism spectrum disorders
Kliemann, D., Dziobek, I., Hatri, A., Baudewig, J., & Heekeren, H. R. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5294-11.2012 · Cited by 183
Nuske, H. J., Vivanti, G., & Dissanayake, C. (2013) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.762900 · Cited by 205
“…due to the inconsistency of concept definitions across studies, with some authors considering ToM to encompass emotion recognition ability (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997, 2001; Rutherford et al., 2002), or to reflect the ‘‘cognitive component’’ of empathy (Wheelwright & Baron-Cohen, 2011), and…”
Is the human amygdala specialized for processing social information?
ADOLPHS, R. (2003) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07091.x · Cited by 186
Inferring a dual-stream model of mentalizing from associative white matter fibres disconnection
Herbet, G., Lafargue, G., Bonnetblanc, F., Moritz‐Gasser, S., de Champfleur, N. M., & Duffau, H. (2014) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awt370 · Cited by 192
“The RME perception-based identification task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) consists of the presentation of 36 photographs of the eye region of human faces.”
MethodThe cognitive neuroscience of autism
Baron‐Cohen, S. (2004) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.018713 · Cited by 193
Self-citationSocial cognition in borderline personality disorder
Roepke, S., Vater, A., Preißler, S., Heekeren, H. R., & Dziobek, I. (2013) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00195 · Cited by 184
An fMRI study of joint attention experience
Williams, J. H. G., Waiter, G. D., Perra, O., Perrett, D. I., & Whiten, A. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.10.047 · Cited by 191
Growing Less Empathic With Age: Disinhibition of the Self-Perspective
Bailey, P. E., & Henry, J. D. (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.4.p219 · Cited by 181
Adenzato, M., Cavallo, M., & Enrici, I. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.08.001 · Cited by 189
“In order to pass this test participants have to recognise complex emotions and mental state, an ability that emerges around the time of adolescence (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997, 2001).”
BackgroundEtiologies underlying sex differences in autism spectrum disorders
Schaafsma, S. M., & Pfaff, D. W. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.006 · Cited by 178
“ASD (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), in a sample encompassing both sexes and for both sexes separately (Chapman et al.”
Identification of neural connectivity signatures of autism using machine learning
Deshpande, G., Libero, L. E., Sreenivasan, K. R., Deshpande, H., & Kana, R. K. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00670 · Cited by 184
“All participants completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b), and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME) test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a).”
MethodFetal testosterone and empathy
Knickmeyer, R. C., Baron‐Cohen, S., Raggatt, P. R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. A. (2005) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.010 · Cited by 194
“Individuals with autism perform poorly on tests where females are usually superior to males, such as the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), but perform better than people without autism on tests where males usually outperform females, such as the “Embedded Figures Task” (Joliffe and Baron-…”
Self-citationQuantifying collective intelligence in human groups
Riedl, C., Kim, Y. J., Gupta, P., Malone, T. W., & Woolley, A. W. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2005737118 · Cited by 215
Theory of mind and facial emotion recognition in euthymic bipolar I and bipolar II disorders
Martino, D. J., Strejilevich, S., Fassi, G., Marengo, E. B., & Igoa, A. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.033 · Cited by 179
“(Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
Michalska, K. J., Kinzler, K. D., & Decety, J. (2012) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.001 · Cited by 179
Normal Recognition of Emotion in a Prosopagnosic
Duchaine, B., Parker, H. A., & Nakayama, K. (2003) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5067 · Cited by 179
“Baron-Cohen et al (2001) also tested one hundred and twenty-two controls from the general population, and their mean was 26.2 (SD 3:6).”
MethodInfluentialNolte, T., Guiney, J., Fonagy, P., Mayes, L. C., & Luyten, P. (2011) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00055 · Cited by 210
Senju, A., Southgate, V., Miura, Y., Matsui, T., Hasegawa, T., Tojo, Y., Osanai, H., & Csibra, G. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000106 · Cited by 188
“However, despite their success on standard false belief tasks, they still exhibit problems in less-structured theory of mind tasks, such as attributing mental states to geometric shapes on the basis of their movement pattern (Abell et al., 2000), or to other people merely from looking at photographs of their eyes (Bar…”
BackgroundTheory of Mind Impairments in Social Anxiety Disorder
Hezel, D. M., & McNally, R. J. (2014) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2014.02.010 · Cited by 197
“Conversely, cognitive ability, as measured by the NART and the verbal reasoning subtest of the WAIS, predicted performance on the MIE, inconsistent with research showing a nonassociation between intelligence and accuracy on this task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodSmeets, T., Dziobek, I., & Wolf, O. T. (2009) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.01.011 · Cited by 176
“The Autism Spectrum Quotient ( Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a )i s a self-report questionnaire measuring the degree to which an adult of normal IQ possesses traits related to the autistic spectrum.”
BackgroundKurtz, M. M., Gagen, E. C., Rocha, N., Machado, S. E. D. C., & Penn, D. L. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.09.003 · Cited by 176
Trakoshis, S., Martínez‐Cañada, P., Rocchi, F., Canella, C., You, W., Chakrabarti, B., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Bullmore, E. T., Suckling, J., Markicevic, M., et al. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.55684 · Cited by 176
“The three scores were first standardized (SADOS, SAQ and SRMET) within our sample of autistic men and women by mean-centering (to the whole autism sample in this study) and scaling (i.e. divided by the maximum possible score of each) to generate uniformly scaled measures that can be arithmetically manipulated.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationFreeth, M., Chapman, P., Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0893-2 · Cited by 178
An investigation of basic facial expression recognition in autism spectrum disorders
Wallace, S., Coleman, M., & Bailey, A. J. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701782153 · Cited by 194
“Therefore, the misidentification of fearful eyes as angry could be associated with the impairment in higher-level cognitive interpretation of eye stimuli reported by Baron-Cohen et al. (1997, 2001).”
BackgroundBrain mechanisms underlying the impact of attachment-related stress on social cognition
Nolte, T., Bolling, D. Z., Hudac, C. M., Fonagy, P., Mayes, L., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00816 · Cited by 176
Baker, C. A., Peterson, E., Pulos, S., & Kirkland, R. A. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.03.001 · Cited by 174
Effects of aging on mindreading ability through the eyes: An fMRI study
Castelli, I., Baglio, F., Blasi, V., Alberoni, M., Falini, A., Liverta-Sempio, O., Nemni, R., & Marchetti, A. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.05.005 · Cited by 182
Paediatric population neuroimaging and the Generation R Study: the second wave
White, T. J. H., Muetzel, R. L., Marroun, H. E., Blanken, L. M. E., Jansen, P. R., Bolhuis, K., Kocevska, D., Mous, S. E., Mulder, R. H., Jaddoe, V. W. V., et al. (2017) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0319-y · Cited by 178
“Maternal autistic traits when the children were between 9 and 11 years of age was obtained using both the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ-Short) [81, 82] and the revised version of the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task [83].”
MethodMathersul, D. C., McDonald, S., & Rushby, J. A. (2013) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.809700 · Cited by 201
Bernstein, D. M., Thornton, W. L., & Sommerville, J. A. (2011) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2011.619466 · Cited by 168
“Although several tasks have been used to assess ToM in aging populations (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ; Happe et al, 1998 ), these tasks are limited in their ability to investigate mental state reasoning across the life span.”
MethodWhat's in a voice? Prosody as a test case for the Theory of Mind account of autism
Chevallier, C., Noveck, I. A., Happe, F. G. E., & Wilson, D. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.042 · Cited by 182
Social cognition in multiple sclerosis
Cotter, J., Firth, J., Enzinger, C., Kontopantelis, E., Yung, A. R., Elliott, R., & Drake, R. (2016) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000003236 · Cited by 181
“For example, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test 19 was classed as a ToM measure as it requires the identification of complex mental states; however, it also includes emotion recognition items.”
MethodIs anorexia nervosa a version of autism spectrum disorders?
Oldershaw, A., Treasure, J. L., Hambrook, D. G., Tchanturia, K., & Schmidt, U. H. (2011) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1069 · Cited by 179
“The general direction of ASD scores across eToM tasks is interesting and unexpected following earlier findings that the tasks increase in difficulty from RME (basic emotion recognition) to RMV (basic eToM) to RMF (advanced eToM) for AN and HC samples (Oldershaw et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOmar, R., Henley, S. M. D., Bartlett, J. W., Hailstone, J. C., Gordón, E., Sauter, D. A., Frost, C. D., Scott, S. K., & Warren, J. D. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.03.002 · Cited by 177
Wakabayashi, A., Baron‐Cohen, S., Uchiyama, T., Yoshida, Y., Kuroda, M., & Wheelwright, S. J. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0316-6 · Cited by 183
“For example, on the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ Test, females score higher than males, but individuals with ASC score even lower than males ( Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, & Hill, 2001 ).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationNeurodevelopmental changes of reading the mind in the eyes
Moor, B. G., de Macks, Z. A. O., Güroğlu, B., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., van der Molen, M. W., & Crone, E. A. (2011) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr020 · Cited by 188
“Based on previous behavioral studies showing that mentalizing abilities develop during early childhood (e.g. Wellman et al., 2001), we predicted that children aged 10–12 year old would already perform well on the task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
InfluentialBillington, J., Baron‐Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. J. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.02.004 · Cited by 172
“Both tests assess traits that are sexually dimorphic (Baron-Cohen & Hammer, 1997; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and are linked to particular academic or career choices (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977; Witkin, Moore, Oltman et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationTheory of Mind in Adults with HFA and Asperger Syndrome
Spek, A. A., SCHOLTE, E. M., & van Berckelaer‐Onnes, I. A. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0860-y · Cited by 185
“Those implicit rules may be different for Dutch people compared to the English population that was investigated in the study of Baron-Cohen et al. (2001), leading to different scores on the Eyes test in a Dutch Table 5 Classification table Observed Neurotypical group versus disorder group Disorder…”
InfluentialHypermentalizing in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Model and Data
Sharp, C., & Vanwoerden, S. (2015) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2015.1004890 · Cited by 195
Are dopaminergic pathways involved in theory of mind? A study in Parkinson's disease
Péron, J., Vicente, S., Leray, E., Drapier, S., Drapier, D., Cohen, R. F., Biseul, I., Rouaud, T., Jeune, F. L., Sauleau, P., et al. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.09.008 · Cited by 173
“As far as the eading the Mind in the Eyes test is concerned, the main problem rises from the poorness of the categories used in such a context. oreover, the recognition of mental states based on the alternatives uggested (four in this experiment) does not necessarily correspond o the inferences we are called upon to m…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCan emotion recognition be taught to children with autism spectrum conditions?
Baron‐Cohen, S., Golan, O., & Ashwin, E. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0191 · Cited by 186
Self-citationInter-brain synchrony in teams predicts collective performance
Reinero, D. A., Dikker, S., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2020) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsaa135 · Cited by 188
“Our Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test results are consistent with the student sample data (N=103) in Baron-Cohen et al., (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; M=28.0, SD=3.5).”
MethodInfluentialThe extreme male brain revisited: gender coherence in adults with autism spectrum disorder
Bejerot, S., Eriksson, J. M., Bonde, S., Carlström, K., Humble, M. B., & Eriksson, E. (2012) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.097899 · Cited by 161
Bellinger, D. C., Watson, C. G., Rivkin, M. J., Robertson, R. L., Roberts, A. E., Stopp, C. D., Dunbar‐Masterson, C., Bernson, D., DeMaso, D. R., Wypij, D., et al. (2015) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.115.002302 · Cited by 168
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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