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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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Items 101–200 of 1,768
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Sabbagh, M. A. (2004) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2003.04.002 · Cited by 337
“To do this, we adapted the ‘‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’’ task ( Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ) for use in a dense-array ERP paradigm (see Fig. 1). In this modified version, 18 normal participants first saw a word labeling either a mental/emotional state (e.g., embarrassed) or a gender (e.g.,…”
MethodA Review of the Role of Social Cognition in Major Depressive Disorder
Weightman, M. J., Air, T., & Baune, B. T. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00179 · Cited by 364
“Almost all studies employed the Reading the Mind in the Eyes assessment task (46), which required participants to interpret the affective mental state portrayed in various cropped images of eyes.”
MethodSucksmith, E., Roth, I., & Hoekstra, R. A. (2011) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-011-9183-9 · Cited by 336
“Social cognition • Theory of Mind ability • Emotion recognition • Trustworthiness of faces • Discerning emotional content of complex social scenes • Differences in face processing strategy • Face recognition/ memory ability • Eye gaze processing/ social orienting difficulties + (7) + (7) + + (1) + + (1) + + (1) - / +…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGolan, O., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hill, J. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0057-y · Cited by 335
“Lastly, we predicted that CAM scores would positively correlate with the Revised ‘‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’’ test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and with a revised version of the ‘‘Reading the Mind in the Voice’’ test (Golan, Baron-Cohen, Rutherford, & Hill, submitted), which includes 4 foils for…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSilent Films and Strange Stories: Theory of Mind, Gender, and Social Experiences in Middle Childhood
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. H. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12017 · Cited by 367
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Solomon, M., Goodlin‐Jones, B. L., & Anders, T. F. (2004) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-004-5286-y · Cited by 345
“eye regions of faces (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and voices (Rutherford, Baron-Cohen, & Wheelwright,”
BackgroundChatGPT outperforms humans in emotional awareness evaluations
Elyoseph, Z., Hadar-Shoval, D., Asraf, K., & Lvovsky, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199058 · Cited by 324
“While mental state recognition (emotion and/or thoughts) tests, such as false belief tasks (Birch and Bloom, 2007), the reading the mind in the eyes task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), or the strange stories test (Happé, 1994), and self-reported assessments like the Toronto alexithymia scale (Bagby et al.”
BackgroundImpaired recognition of negative basic emotions in autism: A test of the amygdala theory
Ashwin, C., Chapman, E., Colle, L., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2006) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910601040772 · Cited by 356
“As in Experiment 1, all participants with ASC were diagnosed according to internationally accepted criteria (APA, 1994; ICD-10, 1994), and completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe Role of the Human Prefrontal Cortex in Social Cognition and Moral Judgment
Forbes, C. E., & Grafman, J. H. (2010) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-153230 · Cited by 331
“…dementia are known to have particular difficulties with mental tasks such as inferring a person’s psychological state by interpreting the directionality and expression of their eyes (i.e., the reading the mind in the eyes test; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) and faux paus detection (Gregory et al. 2002).”
BackgroundBonnie Auyeung, B., Wheelwright, S. J., Allison, C. L., Atkinson, M., Samarawickrema, N., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0772-x · Cited by 355
“Sex differences in empathy remain evident in adulthood: for example, women score higher than men on the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ Test, which examines subtle mental state and emotion recognition (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001; Baron-Cohen et al. 1997b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002573 · Cited by 360
“Different ToM tasks have been utilized across studies, most commonly the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET) and Happé stories; other tasks included different versions of false belief and intention tasks, recognition of faux pax and sarcasm (Happé, 1994; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
MethodA meta-analysis of mentalizing impairments in adults with schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder
Chung, Y. S., Barch, D., & Strube, M. (2014) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt048 · Cited by 310
Empathy in adults with clinical or subclinical depressive symptoms
Schreiter, S., Pijnenborg, G. H. M., & Rot, M. A. H. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.03.009 · Cited by 350
Engel, D., Woolley, A. W., Jing, L. X., Chabris, C. F., & Malone, T. W. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115212 · Cited by 339
“The RME test is also sensitive to differences between men and women and to differences among people who choose different educational fields [22].”
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Livingston, L. A., Colvert, E., the Social Relationships Study Team, Bolton, P., & Happé, F. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12886 · Cited by 300
Golan, O., Baron-Cohen, S., Hill, J. J., & Rutherford, M. D. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0252-5 · Cited by 308
“‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ Task (Revised, Adult Version) ( Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a )”
InfluentialBiological sex affects the neurobiology of autism
Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Suckling, J., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Chakrabarti, B., Ecker, C., Deoni, S. C. L., Craig, M. C., Murphy, D. G. M., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2013) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awt216 · Cited by 298
Self-citationThe “Eye Avoidance” Hypothesis of Autism Face Processing
Tanaka, J. W., & Sung, A. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1976-7 · Cited by 339
“According to Baron-Cohen et al. (2001, 1997), individuals with ASD fail to correctly read the ‘‘language of the eyes’’ and often miss the subtle, socially relevant cues that the eyes convey.”
Wheelwright, S., Auyeung, B., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2010) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-1-10 · Cited by 308
Self-citationA systematic review and meta-analysis of ‘Systems for Social Processes' in eating disorders
Caglar-Nazali, H. P., Corfield, F., Cardi, V., Ambwani, S., Leppanen, J., Olabintan, O., Deriziotis, S., Hadjimichalis, A., Scognamiglio, P., Eshkevari, E., et al. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.002 · Cited by 294
Theory of mind in major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis
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Mentalizing Deficits Constrain Belief in a Personal God
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“In addition to the Empathy Quotient, we added a second distinct measure of mentalizing-the performance-based Reading the Mind in the Eyes or Mindreading task [32].”
MethodInfluentialOliver, B. R., & Plomin, R. J. (2007) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.10.1.96 · Cited by 302
Mindfulness and compassion: an examination of mechanism and scalability
Lim, D., Condon, P., & DeSteno, D. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118221 · Cited by 291
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Calvo, M. G., & Nummenmaa, L. (2015) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1049124 · Cited by 329
Fertuck, E. A., Jekal, A., Song, I., Wyman, B., Morris, M. C., Wilson, S. T., Brodsky, B. S., & Stanley, B. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170900600x · Cited by 297
“The ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test ’ (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) was developed for this purpose.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChakrabarti, B., Dudbridge, F., Kent, L., Wheelwright, S., Hill‐Cawthorne, G., Allison, C., Banerjee‐Basu, S., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2009) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.80 · Cited by 295
Self-citationNeal, D. T., & Chartrand, T. L. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611406138 · Cited by 293
“We note that higher accuracy for positive expressions in the RMET task was also evident in the normal adult sample data reported in Baron-Cohen et al. (2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNeuropsychological Profile of Autism and the Broad Autism Phenotype
Losh, M. C., Adolphs, R., Poe, M. D., Couture, S. M., Penn, D. L., Baranek, G. T., & Piven, J. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.34 · Cited by 303
Evidence for theory of mind deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder
Bora, E., Vahip, S., Gonul, A. S., Akdeniz, F., Alkan, M., Ogut, M., & Eryavuz, A. (2005) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00570.x · Cited by 291
“Perception of complex visual material like faces and basic emotion recognition is essential to infer the mental state of the eyes correctly (24, 34).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCognitive approaches to emotions
Oatley, K., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.004 · Cited by 317
Corden, B., Chilvers, R., & Skuse, D. (2007) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.08.005 · Cited by 291
“Autistic symptomology was further characterised via the autistic-spectrum quotient questionnaire, a brief, self-administered instrument for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSocial Cognition Psychometric Evaluation: Results of the Final Validation Study
Pinkham, A. E., Harvey, P. D., & Penn, D. L. (2017) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx117 · Cited by 291
Where am I? The neurological correlates of self and other
Platek, S. M., Keenan, J. P., Gallup, G. G., & Mohamed, F. B. (2004) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.11.014 · Cited by 306
“Mind in the Eyes—Revised Test The revised eyes test consists of 36 images of people's eyes expressing various mental states (e.g., serious or reflective; see Ref.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences
Archer, J. (2019) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12507 · Cited by 291
“An ability measure of empathizing provided by the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), involving inferring emotional states from depictions of a person’s eyes, showed only a small difference in the female direction.”
BackgroundBethlehem, R. A. I., van Honk, J., Auyeung, B., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.10.011 · Cited by 285
“" left AMYG, FG, STG (for fearful faces) # IFG (for angry and happy faces) Labuschagne et al. (2010) CO Emotional faces 24 IU 45 min 36 e # AMYG (for fearful stimuli in patients with GSAD) Labuschagne et al. (2011) CO Sad, happy and neutral faces 24 IU 50 min 36 e # mPFC, ACC (for sad faces in patients with GSAD) Baum…”
MethodSelf-citationWhat Do Theory-of-Mind Tasks Actually Measure? Theory and Practice
Quesque, F., & Rossetti, Y. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619896607 · Cited by 287
“A critical test for this interpretation has actually been conducted by comparing the performances of clinical populations known to present specific impairment in theory of mind or emotion recognition on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), which is the most used test of theory of min…”
MethodSchwenck, C., Mergenthaler, J., Keller, K., Zech, J., Salehi, S., Taurines, R., Romanos, M., Schecklmann, M., Schneider, W., Warnke, A., et al. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02499.x · Cited by 293
“The fact, that we exclusively found impairments for recognition of sadness may be due to the assessment of primary emotions in the MT, while other studies used complex emotions as stimuli (e.g. Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
ResultJOSEPH, R. M., & TAGER–FLUSBERG, H. (2004) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457940404444x · Cited by 288
Mental state decoding abilities in clinical depression
Lee, L., Harkness, K. L., Sabbagh, M. A., & Jacobson, J. A. (2005) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.02.007 · Cited by 280
“In the current study we assess mental state decoding using the bReading the Mind in the EyesQ task (bEyes taskQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodMatthews, D. E., Biney, H., & Abbot‐Smith, K. (2018) · Language Learning and Development · doi:10.1080/15475441.2018.1455584 · Cited by 333
“Bernard and Deleau (2007) found medium to large correlations between a composite false belief measure and a composite measure of communicative perspective taking at all three time points (3;8, 4;2, 4;8) in their longitudinal study.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe contributions of oxytocin and vasopressin pathway genes to human behavior
Ebstein, R. P., Knafo, A., Mankuta, D., Chew, S. H., & Lai, P. S. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.014 · Cited by 283
Double dissociation between cognitive and affective empathy in borderline personality disorder
Harari, H., Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Ravid, M., & Levkovitz, Y. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.03.002 · Cited by 280
“Currently, there is a lack of a clear distinction between empathy and the ToM concept, leading some researchers to use these terms interchangeably (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Kaland et al., 2002).”
BackgroundFoetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children
Knickmeyer, R. C., Baron‐Cohen, S., Raggatt, P. R., & Taylor, K. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00349.x · Cited by 288
“However, higher male scores on the imagination and attention scales of the AQ do suggest that males may have more restricted interests than females (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDeficits in facial, body movement and vocal emotional processing in autism spectrum disorders
Philip, R. C. M., Whalley, H. C., Stanfield, A. C., Sprengelmeyer, R., Santos, I. M., Young, A. W., Atkinson, A. P., Calder, A. J., Johnstone, E. C., Lawrie, S. M., et al. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709992364 · Cited by 300
An integrative neural model of social perception, action observation, and theory of mind
Yang, D. Y.-J., Rosenblau, G., Keifer, C., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.020 · Cited by 263
“…that compared mentalizing skills of typically and atypically developing children (Baron-Cohen, 1989; Perner et al., 1989), the lack of false-belief recognition has been considered to be a hallmark of the core social deficits in ASD (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985, 1997, 2001; Leslie and Thaiss, 1992).”
BackgroundNarrative Discourse in Adults with High-Functioning Autism or Asperger Syndrome
Colle, L., Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S. J., & van der Lely, H. K. J. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0357-5 · Cited by 297
Self-citationKalandadze, T., Norbury, C., Nærland, T., & Næss, K.-A. B. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316668652 · Cited by 281
“, 2009) and the children’s version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RMTE) task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), makes a unique contribution to figurative language (i.”
BackgroundThe animal and human neuroendocrinology of social cognition, motivation and behavior
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Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0368-1 · Cited by 268
Ip, H. H. S., Wong, S. W. L., Chan, D. F. Y., Byrne, J., Li, C., Yuan, V. S. N., Lau, K. S.-Y., & Wong, J. Y. W. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.010 · Cited by 305
Testing theory of mind in large language models and humans
Strachan, J. W. A., Albergo, D., Borghini, G., Pansardi, O., Scaliti, E., Gupta, S., Saxena, K., Rufo, A., Panzeri, S., Manzi, G., et al. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01882-z · Cited by 299
“…indirect measures of belief attribution using reaction times 4–6 and looking or searching behaviour 7–9 , tasks examining the ability to infer mental states from photographs of eyes 10 , and language-based tasks assessing false belief understanding 11,12 and pragmatic language comprehension 13–16 .”
Bridging the transmission gap: An end to an important mystery of attachment research?
Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (2005) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616730500269278 · Cited by 298
“The relationship between the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ) and the experience of childhood and adolescent trauma as measured by the Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse interview (Bifulco, Brown, & Harris, 1994 ; Bifulco, Brown, Lillie, & Jarvis, 1997 ) was…”
BackgroundBlack, M. H., Chen, N. T. M., Iyer, K. K., Lipp, O. V., Bölte, S., Falkmer, M., Tan, T., & Girdler, S. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.016 · Cited by 279
“A lack of orientation or focus on the eyes in ASD populations may therefore suggest that individuals with ASD do not perceive the eyes as being socially salient or meaningful (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundPsychometric analysis of the empathy quotient (EQ) scale.
Muncer, S., & Ling, J. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.09.020 · Cited by 281
Elevated rates of testosterone-related disorders in women with autism spectrum conditions
Ingudomnukul, E., Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S. J., & Knickmeyer, R. C. (2007) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.02.001 · Cited by 280
“Typical males also have more autistic traits on average than typical females, as measured by the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b; Wheelwright et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationDuchaine, B., Yovel, G., Butterworth, E. J., & Nakayama, K. (2006) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643290500441296 · Cited by 263
Preißler, S., Dziobek, I., Ritter, K., Heekeren, H. R., & Roepke, S. (2010) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00182 · Cited by 286
Alexithymia in the interpersonal domain: A general deficit of empathy?
Grynberg, D., Luminet, O., Corneille, O., Grèzes, J., & Berthoz, S. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.013 · Cited by 260
Poletti, M., Enrici, I., & Adenzato, M. (2012) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.004 · Cited by 278
Jones, C. R. G., Simonoff, E., Baird, G., Pickles, A., Marsden, A. J. S., Tregay, J., Happé, F., & Charman, T. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1873 · Cited by 259
“ToM measures included: (i) False belief, as the gold standard measure of mentalising, (ii) Strange stories, as a general measure of mental state understanding, requiring understanding of the intent of one character to manipulate the mental state of another, (iii) Frith-Happé animations, as a general measure of mental…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEffects of intranasal oxytocin on the neural basis of face processing in autism spectrum disorder
Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Kumbier, E., Grossmann, A., Hauenstein, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2013) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.02.007 · Cited by 255
“Studies with adults have demonstrated diminished eye gaze (8–10) and impaired facial emotion recognition (11,12) in persons with ASD.”
BackgroundEmpathy and social functioning in late adulthood
Bailey, P. E., Henry, J. D., & von Hippel, W. (2008) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860802224243 · Cited by 253
“The revised eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) requires participants to select which of four words best describes the thoughts or feelings expressed in 36 pictures of eyes.”
BackgroundInfluentialAdolfi, F., Couto, B., Richter, F., Decety, J., Lopez, J., Sigman, M., Manes, F., & Ibáñez, A. (2017) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.12.019 · Cited by 238
Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study
Kühn, S., Kugler, D., Schmalen, K., Weichenberger, M., Witt, C., & Gallinat, J. (2018) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0031-7 · Cited by 291
“To quantify pro-social behaviour, we employed: Interpersonal Reactivity Index [34] (frequently used in research on the effects of violent video gameplay), Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale [35], Reading the Mind in the Eyes test [36], Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire [37] and Richardson Conflict Response Question…”
MethodBedi, G., Hyman, D., & de Wit, H. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.003 · Cited by 247
“Identification of complex emotions used the Reading the Mind in the Eyes - Revised test (Eyes test) [21].”
Disrupted cortical connectivity theory as an explanatory model for autism spectrum disorders
Kana, R. K., Libero, L. E., & Moore, M. S. (2011) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2011.10.001 · Cited by 263
Theory of mind and neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood
KORKMAZ, B. (2011) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e318212c177 · Cited by 249
Leisure reading and social cognition: A meta-analysis.
Mumper, M. L., & Gerrig, R. J. (2017) · Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000089 · Cited by 249
Emotional Intelligence and Addictions: A Systematic Review
Kun, B., & Demetrovics, Z. (2010) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826080903567855 · Cited by 248
“In a Hungarian study (Matyassy, Kelemen, Sarkozi, Janka, & Keri, 2006), the participants answered the Baron-Cohen Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
Kaland, N., Møller‐Nielsen, A., Callesen, K., Mortensen, E. L., Gottlieb, D., & Smith, L. (2002) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00042 · Cited by 266
Ramdoss, S. T., Machalicek, W., Rispoli, M. J., Mulloy, A. M., Lang, R. B., & O’Reilly, M. F. (2012) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3109/17518423.2011.651655 · Cited by 270
“Golan and Baron-Cohen [56] assessed facial processing using a validated, curriculum-based measure: the Cambridge Mindreading Face-Voice Battery (CAM) [76] and two validated, skill generalization measures: Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task – Revised, Adult Version [77] and Reading the Mind in Film Task [78].”
MethodLazarus, S. A., Cheavens, J., Festa, F., & Rosenthal, M. (2014) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.01.007 · Cited by 239
Impairments in Social Cognition Following Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
McDonald, S. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617712001506 · Cited by 283
Auyeung, B., Lombardo, M. V., Heinrichs, M., Chakrabarti, B., Sule, A., Deakin, J. B., Bethlehem, R. A. I., Dickens, L., Mooney, N., Sipple, J. A. N., et al. (2015) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2014.146 · Cited by 234
Self-citationEnhanced accuracy of mental state decoding in dysphoric college students
Harkness, K., Sabbagh, M., Jacobson, J., Chowdrey, N., & Chen, T. (2005) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930541000110 · Cited by 244
“…make a forced choice between four words (the standardised correct response and three distracters) that describe what the person in the photograph might be thinking or feeling (see Figure 1a for a sample item; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001, for complete information on how the stimuli were developed).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBaron-Cohen, S., Bowen, D. C., Holt, R. J., Allison, C., Auyeung, B., Lombardo, M. V., Smith, P., & Lai, M.-C. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0136521 · Cited by 238
“The Eyes test (revised and online version) consists of 36 grey-scale photos of people taken from magazines [14, 31].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationAge effects on different components of theory of mind
Duval, C., Piolino, P., Bejanin, A., Eustache, F., & Desgranges, B. (2010) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.025 · Cited by 267
“…test featuring basic emotions (e.g., happy, sad, fearful, etc.) as ToM precursors (Sommer, Dohnel, Meinhardt, & Hajak, 2008) or the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) featuring complex emotions (e.g., scheming, guilty, threatening, etc.).”
BackgroundThe Need for a Cognitive Neuroscience of Naturalistic Social Cognition
Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2009) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04601.x · Cited by 251
Montag, C., Dziobek, I., Richter, I. S., Neuhaus, K., Lehmann, A. I., Sylla, R., Heekeren, H. R., Heinz, A., & Gallinat, J. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.09.006 · Cited by 262
Looser, C. E., & Wheatley, T. P. (2010) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797610388044 · Cited by 233
Age Differences in Emotion Recognition Skills and the Visual Scanning of Emotion Faces
Sullivan, S., Ruffman, T., & Hutton, S. B. (2007) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/62.1.p53 · Cited by 257
Oxytocin and human social behavior.
Campbell, A. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310363594 · Cited by 232
Social cognition in euthymic bipolar disorder: systematic review and meta‐analytic approach
Samamé, C., Martino, D. J., & Strejilevich, S. (2011) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01808.x · Cited by 245
“(57) were also considered for this meta-analysis.”
Couture, S. M., Penn, D. L., Losh, M. C., Adolphs, R., Hurley, R. S. E., & Piven, J. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170999078x · Cited by 246
“This high correlation renders the current results difficult to interpret, and suggests that further data are needed to understand the role of cognitive abilities and IQ in social perceptual ToM.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDecision-making cognition in neurodegenerative diseases
Gleichgerrcht, E. L., Ibáñez, A. M., Roca, M., Torralva, T., & Manes, F. F. (2010) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.148 · Cited by 245
Sex/Gender Differences in Camouflaging in Children and Adolescents with Autism
Wood‐Downie, H., Wong, B., Kovshoff, H., Mandy, W., Hull, L., & Hadwin, J. A. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04615-z · Cited by 236
Topical Review: Fetal Testosterone and Sex Differences in Typical Social Development and in Autism
Knickmeyer, R. C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006) · Journal of Child Neurology · doi:10.1177/08830738060210101601 · Cited by 230
Self-citationA framework for understanding the relationship between externally and internally directed cognition
Dixon, M. L., Fox, K. C. R., & Kalina Christoff, A. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.05.024 · Cited by 238
“In some ToM tasks, participants are asked to infer the mental state of another individual based on perceptual information alone, or in combination with additional contextual information (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Lieberman, 2007).”
BackgroundDixon, M. L., Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., Spreng, R. N., Irving, Z. C., Mills, C., Girn, M., & Kalina Christoff, A. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.073 · Cited by 239
“Indeed, learning often requires a synergy between perceptual and memory processes (Chun and TurkBrowne, 2007; Hasselmo and McGaughy, 2004), and mental state inferences often draw upon perceptual input (e.g., facial expressions) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundDi Simplicio, M., Massey-Chase, R., Cowen, P., & Harmer, C. (2009) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881108095705 · Cited by 229
Agreeableness is related to social‐cognitive, but not social‐perceptual, theory of mind
Nettle, D., & Liddle, B. (2008) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.672 · Cited by 241
“Scores on the Eyes Test were close to those reported by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) for a general population adult group (their mean 26.2, SD 3.6, our mean 27.32, SD 3.41).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDufour, N., Redcay, E., Young, L., Mavros, P. L., Moran, J. M., Triantafyllou, C., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Saxe, R. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075468 · Cited by 228
“Behavioral measures of ToM often reveal an advantage for female individuals [33,34]; apparently this advantage is not due to measurable differences in ToM-associated brain region activity as elicited by the false belief task.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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