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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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Using gaze patterns to predict task intent in collaboration
Huang, C., Andrist, S., Sauppé, A., & Mutlu, B. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01049 · Cited by 181
“Humans employ a number of behavioral cues, such as gaze and gestures, when working with others on a task (Morris and Desebrock, 1977; White, 1989; Clark and Brennan, 1991; Shibata et al., 1995; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Meltzoff and Brooks, 2001; Bangerter, 2004).”
BackgroundVoracek, M., & Dressler, S. G. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.009 · Cited by 164
Gleichgerrcht, E. L., & Jean Decety, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00243 · Cited by 167
“Although not without controversy, results in the general population tend to show higher empathic sensitivity ratings among females (e.g., Lennon and Eisenberg, 1987; Jaffee and Hyde, 2000; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Mestre et al., 2009).”
ResultDyck, M. J., Farrugia, C., Shochet, I. M., & Holmes‐Brown, M. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00272.x · Cited by 178
Euteneuer, F., Schaefer, F., Stuermer, R., Boucsein, W., Timmermann, L., Barbe, M. T., Ebersbach, G., Otto, J., Kessler, J., & Kalbe, E. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.014 · Cited by 174
Kamilar-Britt, P., & Bedi, G. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.016 · Cited by 163
“Three studies investigated the effects of MDMA on emotion recognition from pictures of the eye region using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), which was designed to assesssocial cognition in individuals with autism(Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
Theory of Mind in normal ageing and neurodegenerative pathologies
Kemp, J., Després, O., Sellal, F., & Dufour, A. (2011) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2011.12.001 · Cited by 184
Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions
Byom, L. J., & Mutlu, B. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413 · Cited by 196
“Frontiers in Human Neuroscience www.frontiersin.org August 2013 | Volume 7 | Article 413 | 4”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial cognition, empathy and functional outcome in schizophrenia
Sparks, A., McDonald, S., Lino, B., O'Donnell, M., & Green, M. J. (2010) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2010.06.011 · Cited by 162
Minimal coherence among varied theory of mind measures in childhood and adulthood
Warnell, K. R., & Redcay, E. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.009 · Cited by 171
Trevisan, D. A., Roberts, N., Lin, C., & Birmingham, E. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188446 · Cited by 159
“” For astute observers, eyes hold a wealth of information about a person’s emotions, mental states [1], identity [2], and focus of attention [3].”
Spatial statistics of gaze fixations during dynamic face processing
Buchan, J. N., Paré, M., & Munhall, K. G. (2007) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910601043644 · Cited by 159
“On the one hand, the eyes carry important social information (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), the eyes attract fixations when subjects are performing emotion judgments in static photographs (Adolphs et al.”
BackgroundSocial cognition in schizophrenia in comparison to bipolar disorder: A meta-analysis
Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2016) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.04.018 · Cited by 165
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET) and faux pas recognition (the task involves recognizing faux pas in series of short stories) were the most commonly used ToM tasks and other tasks have included the Hinting, picture sequencing tasks, TASIT (The Awareness of Social Inference Test)-sarcasm and different versi…”
MethodNeural correlates of eye-gaze detection in young children with autism
Grice, S. J., Halit, H., Farroni, T., Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., & Johnson, M. H. (2005) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70271-5 · Cited by 162
Self-citationDomes, G., Kumbier, E., Heinrichs, M., & Herpertz, S. C. (2014) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2013.254 · Cited by 160
Neural correlates of self-face recognition: an effect-location meta-analysis
Platek, S. M., Wathne, K., Tierney, N. G., & Thomson, J. W. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.010 · Cited by 159
Kunihira, Y., Senju, A., Dairoku, H., Wakabayashi, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0094-1 · Cited by 180
“Eyes Test ( Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a ).: This is the revised version of the Eyes Test first developed by Baron-Cohen et al. (1997).”
MethodResultInfluentialAffective and cognitive theory of mind in patients with parkinson’s disease
Bodden, M., Mollenhauer, B., Trenkwalder, C., Cabanel, N., Eggert, K. M., Unger, M. M., Oertel, W. H., Kessler, J., Dodel, R. C., & Kalbe, E. (2010) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.04.014 · Cited by 156
Facial mimicry in its social setting
Seibt, B., Mühlberger, A., Likowski, K. U., & Weyers, P. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01122 · Cited by 178
“Likowski et al. (2011a), using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) found that the experimental context influences cognitive empathy– with individuals in a competitive context having less–, and that high cognitive empathy predicted specifically more happiness mimicry.”
BackgroundMethodTheory of Mind Abilities and Deficits in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Kimhi, Y. (2014) · Topics in Language Disorders · doi:10.1097/tld.0000000000000033 · Cited by 181
Social cognition in alcohol use disorder: a meta-analysis
Bora, E., & Zorlu, N. (2016) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13486 · Cited by 168
“The severity of deficits in RMET (ToM-decoding) and fear recognition, both of which require a significant contribution of the amygdala [59,61], were also significant in AUD.”
MethodInfluentialImpaired emotional empathy and related social network deficits in cocaine users
Preller, K. H., Hulka, L. M., Vonmoos, M., Jenni, D., Baumgartner, M. R., Seifritz, E., Dziobek, I., & Quednow, B. B. (2013) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12070 · Cited by 168
“2006) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Importance of Social Cognition in Improving Functional Outcomes in Schizophrenia
Javed, A., & Charles, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00157 · Cited by 158
“ToM was assessed using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test-Revised Version (which measures the decoding component of ToM), and the authors speculate whether tools that assess the reasoning rather than the decoding aspect of ToM might better elucidate the role of ToM as a marker of vulnerability for later developing…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHolbein, J. B., & Hillygus, D. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770446 · Cited by 170
Anagnostou, E., Soorya, L., Brian, J., Dupuis, A., Mankad, D., Smile, S., & Jacob, S. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.049 · Cited by 155
“It is appropriate for participants aged 6–74 and provides a standardized and objective procedure for assessing the capacity to identify and discriminate photographs of unfamiliar human faces. cin in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders: A review search (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.049 The…”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychometric analysis of the Empathy Quotient (EQ)
Allison, C., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stone, M., & Muncer, S. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.005 · Cited by 168
Self-citationEmpathic reactions after reading: The role of genre, personal factors and affective responses
Koopman, E. M. (. (2015) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2015.02.008 · Cited by 154
“Moreover, some measures of empathy that are commonly used, like the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET, see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) bear little relation to compassion and prosocial action in real-life.”
MethodEnticott, P. G., Fitzgibbon, B. M., Kennedy, H. A., Arnold, S. L., Elliot, D., Peachey, A., Zangen, A., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2013) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2013.10.004 · Cited by 153
“5e2 h session featuring self-report clinical scales with good psychometric properties (Ritvo Autism-Aspergers Diagnostic Scale [RAADS] [10], Autism Spectrum Quotient [AQ] [11], Interpersonal Reactivity Index [IRI] [12]), and experimental measures of mentalizing (reading the mind in the eyes test [13] and animations me…”
MethodThe complexity of empathy during medical school training: evidence for positive changes
Smith, K. E., Norman, G. J., & Jean Decety, A. (2017) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.13398 · Cited by 152
Theory of Mind: a Hidden Factor in Reading Comprehension?
Dore, R. A., Amendum, S. J., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-018-9443-9 · Cited by 156
“In this study, exposure to fiction was related to measures such as the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), in which participants see an image of a person’s eye region and must choose which of four possible mental states the person is experiencing.”
MethodLittlemore, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108241441 · Cited by 169
Deficits in emotional and social cognition in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Girardi, A., MacPherson, S. E., & Abrahams, S. (2010) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0020357 · Cited by 154
Lehnhardt, F.-G., Falter, C. M., Gawronski, A., Pfeiffer, K., Tepest, R., Franklin, J., & Vogeley, K. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2558-7 · Cited by 153
Rosset, D. B., Rondan, C., Fonséca, D. D., Santos, A., Assouline, B., & Deruelle, C. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0465-2 · Cited by 166
“In line with this idea, previous studies reported that ASD children were able to recognize basic but not complex emotional expressions (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al. 1997, 2001 ).”
ResultHartwigsen, G., Neef, N. E., Camilleri, J. A., Margulies, D. S., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2018) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhy049 · Cited by 167
“In particular, theory of mind processing, that is, the attribution of cognitive and affective mental states to oneself and others (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), was associated with right area 45 while empathy processing was located in both right area 45 and 44.”
BackgroundMorgan, B., Maybery, M. T., & Durkin, K. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.646 · Cited by 160
Jack, A. I., Friedman, J. P., Boyatzis, R. E., & Taylor, S. N. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149989 · Cited by 166
“In Study 5, we did not replicate the previously observed relationship [8] between belief and Reading the Mind in the Eyes.”
InfluentialArnold, J. E., Bennetto, L., & Diehl, J. J. (2008) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.016 · Cited by 157
Spreng, R. N., & Mar, R. A. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.024 · Cited by 156
Theory of mind tasks and executive functions: A systematic review of group studies in neurology
Aboulafia-Brakha, T., Christe, B., Martory, M.-D., & Annoni, J. (2010) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1348/174866410x533660 · Cited by 164
“TOM tasks TOM tasks considered for analysis were: the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), the Faux Pas Test (Stone et al.”
MethodChristidi, F., Migliaccio, R., Santamaría‐García, H. A., Santangelo, G., & Trojsi, F. (2018) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2018/1849794 · Cited by 160
“In particular, executive function tests, such as Stroop task and Trail Making Test, have been shown to be less disease specific than social cognition tests, such as the RMET, for the differential diagnosis across different forms of dementia [85-89].”
MethodNeuropsychological Evidence of Impaired Cognitive Empathy in Euthymic Bipolar Disorder
Shamay‐Tsoory, S., Harari, H., Szepsenwol, O., & Levkovitz, Y. (2009) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/jnp.2009.21.1.59 · Cited by 158
Gaigg, S. (2012) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00113 · Cited by 168
Lysaker, P. H., Gumley, A. I., Luedtke, B. L., Buck, K. D., Ringer, J. M., Olesek, K. L., Kukla, M., Leonhardt, B. L., Popolo, R., & Dimaggio, G. (2012) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12012 · Cited by 149
“Rotated component matrix from a varamax rotation following a principal components analysis (n = 95) Component 1* Component 2 BLERT Total 0.80 0.23 Eyes Test 0.77 0.07 Hinting Test 0.69 0.04 BCIS Total )0.04 0.87 MAS Total 0.30 0.73 BCIS, Beck Cognitive Insight Scale; BLERT, Bell-Lysaker Emotional Recognition Task.”
BackgroundInfluentialEye-Movement Strategies in Developmental Prosopagnosia and “Super” Face Recognition
Bobak, A. K., Parris, B. A., Gregory, N. J., Bennetts, R. J., & Bate, S. (2016) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2016.1161059 · Cited by 144
Social cognition and quality of life in schizophrenia
Maat, A., Fett, A.-K. J., & Derks, E. M. (2012) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.02.017 · Cited by 144
“the ability to infer the intentions and beliefs of others, sometimes also referred to as social intelligence (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundAutism, Hypersystemizing, and Truth
Baron‐Cohen, S. (2007) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210701508749 · Cited by 155
Self-citationThe emerging fragile X premutation phenotype: Evidence from the domain of social cognition
Cornish, K., Kogan, C., Turk, J., Manly, T., James, N., Mills, A., & Dalton, A. (2005) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.020 · Cited by 148
“Autism spectrum quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) The AQ is a self-assessment screening instrument developed by Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright et al. (2001) to measure the degree to which an individual of normal intelligence shows autistic traits.”
MethodCusi, A. M., MacQUEEN, G. M., Spreng, R. N., & McKinnon, M. C. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.013 · Cited by 159
“…been reported in neuropsychiatric populations such as schizophrenia (Montag et al., 2007; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2007) and autism spectrum disorders (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Rogers et al., 2007), however, to date, very few studies have assessed empathic responding in patients with mood disorders.”
van Prooijen, J., & van Dijk, E. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.006 · Cited by 160
“Participants started with “ Experiment 1 ” in which we measured their perspective-taking ability by assessing the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), and then summed the number of correct responses for each participant ( M = 24.49, SD = 4.30).”
MethodInfluentialMosconi, M. W., Mack, P. B., McCarthy, G., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.03.027 · Cited by 147
AI and the Future of Skills, Volume 1
OECD (2021) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/5ee71f34-en · Cited by 233
Sasson, N. J., Pinkham, A. E., Carpenter, K. L. H., & Belger, A. (2010) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11689-010-9068-x · Cited by 151
“…extensive deficits in face processing (Klin et al. 1999; Langdell 1978; for review, see Sasson 2006) affect recognition (Baron-Cohen 1995; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001; Celani et al. 1999; Edwards et al. 2002; Loveland et al. 1997), gaze processing (Baron-Cohen et al. 1999a; Mundy et al.…”
BackgroundAdolescent social cognitive and affective neuroscience: past, present, and future
Pfeifer, J. H., & Blakemore, S. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr099 · Cited by 159
Bora, E., & Köse, S. (2016) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22572 · Cited by 152
Distributed affective space represents multiple emotion categories across the human brain
Saarimäki, H., Ejtehadian, L. F., Glerean, E., Jääskeläinen, I. P., Vuilleumier, P., Sams, M., & Nummenmaa, L. (2018) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsy018 · Cited by 146
“Yet, a wide array of other emotions, including ‘secondary’ or ‘social’ emotions (see reviews and proposed taxonomies in Damasio, 1999; Adolphs, 2002a), also serve adaptive survival functions and are characterized by distinctive facial expressions (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Shaw et al., 2005), bodily sensations (Nummen…”
BackgroundHileman, C. M., Henderson, H. A., Mundy, P. C., Newell, L. C., & Jaime, M. (2011) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.549870 · Cited by 144
“Participants completed the Children's Eyes Test ( Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ).”
Rice, L., Wall, C. A., Fogel, A., & Shic, F. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2380-2 · Cited by 162
“…TM game, ‘‘Follow the Leader,’’ was designed to address well-known difficulties in ASD involving recognition and identification of emotional expressions (Hobson 1986; for a review see Harms et al. 2010), especially expressions indicated only by pictures of people’s eyes (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundTang, S., Nadkarni, S., Wei, L., & Zhang, S. X. (2020) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2019.0378 · Cited by 155
Stenstrom, E. P., Saad, G., Nepomuceno, M. V., & Mendenhall, Z. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.003 · Cited by 149
From self to social cognition: Theory of Mind mechanisms and their relation to Executive Functioning
Bradford, E. E. F., Jentzsch, I., & Gómez, J. C. (2015) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.02.001 · Cited by 166
The structure of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from a student sample in Scotland
Stewart, M. E., & Austin, E. J. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.03.004 · Cited by 146
Scaling of Advanced Theory-of-Mind Tasks
Osterhaus, C., Koerber, S., & Sodian, B. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12566 · Cited by 147
Samur, D., Tops, M., & Koole, S. L. (2018) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2017.1279591 · Cited by 142
“The RMET was originally developed to assess stable individual differences in mentalising abilities (e.g. relating to autism, Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodMDMA enhances “mind reading” of positive emotions and impairs “mind reading” of negative emotions
Hysek, C. M., Domes, G., & Liechti, M. E. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2645-9 · Cited by 144
Early processing of emotional faces in children with autism: An event-related potential study
Batty, M., Meaux, E., Wittemeyer, K., Rogé, B., & Taylor, M. J. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.001 · Cited by 141
Abramson, L., Uzefovsky, F., Toccaceli, V., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.023 · Cited by 154
Elevated empathy in adults following childhood trauma
Greenberg, D. M., Baron‐Cohen, S., Rosenberg, N., Fonagy, P., & Rentfrow, P. J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203886 · Cited by 169
Self-citationBotting, N., & Conti‐Ramsden, G. (2007) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151007x235891 · Cited by 142
Zaki, J., Hennigan, K. M., Weber, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2010) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0382-10.2010 · Cited by 143
Neural Signatures of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Insights into Brain Network Dynamics
Hernandez, L. M., Rudie, J. D., Green, S. A., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Dapretto, M. (2014) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2014.172 · Cited by 148
“…with ASD show deficits in higher-level social information processing, such as recognizing social faux pas (Baron-Cohen et al, 1999), and extrapolating the mental state of others based on cues expressed through the eyes and by voice (Baron-Cohen et al, 1997, 2001; BaronCohen and Hammer, 1997).”
BackgroundDissociation between cognitive and affective empathy in youth with Asperger Syndrome
Rueda, P., Fernández‐Berrocal, P., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2014) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2014.950221 · Cited by 154
Self-citationKalin, M. L., Kaplan, S., Gould, F., Pinkham, A. E., Penn, D. L., & Harvey, P. D. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.07.008 · Cited by 142
“, 2009), the Reading the Mind through the Eyes task (Eyes; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), The Awareness of Social Inferences Test, Part III (TASIT III) (McDonald et al.”
MethodTheory of mind in social anxiety disorder, depression, and comorbid conditions
Washburn, D., Wilson, G. A., Roes, M., Rnic, K., & Harkness, K. L. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.11.004 · Cited by 160
Therapist Expertise in Psychotherapy Revisited
Hill, C. E., Spiegel, S. B., Hoffman, M. A., Kivlighan, D. M., & Gelso, C. J. (2017) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000016641192 · Cited by 157
Hypersensitivity in Borderline Personality Disorder during Mindreading
Frick, C., Lang, S., Kotchoubey, B., Sieswerda, S., Dinu-Biringer, R., Berger, M. C., Veser, S., Essig, M., & Barnow, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041650 · Cited by 142
Impact of Aging on Empathy: Review of Psychological and Neural Mechanisms
Beadle, J. N., & de la Vega, C. E. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00331 · Cited by 140
Neural Correlates of Mental State Decoding in Human Adults: An Event-related Potential Study
Sabbagh, M. A., Moulson, M. C., & Harkness, K. L. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892904322926755 · Cited by 145
Functional autonomic nervous system profile in children with autism spectrum disorder
Kushki, A., Brian, J., Dupuis, A., & Anagnostou, E. (2014) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-5-39 · Cited by 145
MacDonald, K., MacDonald, T. M., Brüne, M., Lamb, K., Wilson, M. P., Golshan, S., & Feifel, D. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.014 · Cited by 140
“jealous, panicked, arrogant, hateful) and subjects chose the word they feel best describes the mental state of the pictured individual (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSchuwerk, T., Vuori, M., & Sodian, B. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314526004 · Cited by 166
“, 2007) with performance in two standard ToM tasks: the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME) Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), tapping the social-perceptual component of a ToM (cf.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialValle, A., Massaro, D., Castelli, I., & Marchetti, A. (2015) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v11i1.829 · Cited by 174
Toivonen, R., Kivelä, M., Saramäki, J., Viinikainen, M., Vanhatalo, M., & Sams, M. E. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028883 · Cited by 142
When competition merges people's behavior: Interdependency activates shared action representations
Ruys, K. I., & Aarts, H. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.016 · Cited by 142
Evidence for deficits in facial affect recognition and theory of mind in multiple sclerosis
HENRY, J. D., PHILLIPS, L. H., BEATTY, W. W., MCDONALD, S., LONGLEY, W. A., JOSCELYNE, A., & RENDELL, P. G. (2009) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617709090195 · Cited by 141
“The revised Mind in the Eyes test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001 ) was used to index ToM.”
BackgroundMethodWarrier, V., Grasby, K. L., Uzefovsky, F., Toro, R., Smith, P. L., Chakrabarti, B., Khadake, J., Mawbey-Adamson, E., Litterman, N. K., Hottenga, J., et al. (2017) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2017.122 · Cited by 153
Self-citationEmpathy, social functioning and schizotypy
Henry, J. D., Bailey, P. E., & Rendell, P. G. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.04.014 · Cited by 142
“The revised Eyes test ( Baron-Cohen et al., 2001 ) may beregardedaspredominantlytappingcognitive empathy (see Lawrence et al., 2004), requiring participants to select which of four words best describes the thoughts or feelings expressed in 36 pictures of eyes.”
BackgroundEack, S. M., Greeno, C. G., Pogue‐Geile, M. F., Newhill, C. E., Hogarty, G. E., & Keshavan, M. S. (2008) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn091 · Cited by 141
On the persistence of strategic sophistication
Georganas, S., Healy, P. J., & Weber, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Economic Theory · doi:10.1016/j.jet.2015.07.012 · Cited by 154
“The Eye Gaze test [7] asks subjects to identify the emotions being expressed by a pair of eyes in a photograph.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe brains of high functioning autistic individuals do not synchronize with those of others
Salmi, J., Roine, U., Glerean, E., Lahnakoski, J. M., Wendt, T. N., Tani, P., Leppämäki, S., Nummenmaa, L., Jääskeläinen, I. P., Carlson, S., et al. (2013) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.10.011 · Cited by 148
“AQ, (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a), Empathizing and Systemizing Quotients (EQ/SQ, (Baron-Cohen et al., 2003), Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b), and Benton Face Recognition Test (Benton et al., 1983) were also administered to the participants (Table 1).”
InfluentialPerformance of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder on Advanced Theory of Mind Tasks
Brent, E., Rios, P., Happe, F. G. E., & Charman, T. (2004) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361304045217 · Cited by 141
Arioli, M., Cattaneo, Z., Ricciardi, E., & Canessa, N. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25570 · Cited by 151
The Dartmouth Database of Children’s Faces: Acquisition and Validation of a New Face Stimulus Set
Dalrymple, K. A., Gomez, J., & Duchaine, B. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079131 · Cited by 137
“Consistent with previous findings of gender differences in face tasks [13,17,18], female raters were more accurate than male raters at identifying facial expressions.”
ResultPerceived interpersonal synchrony increases empathy: Insights from autism spectrum disorder
Koehne, S., Hatri, A., Cacioppo, J. T., & Dziobek, I. (2015) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.09.007 · Cited by 153
Super‐recognizers: From the lab to the world and back again
Ramon, M., Bobak, A. K., & White, D. (2019) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12368 · Cited by 134
Empathy, gender, and prosocial behavior
Kamas, L., & Preston, A. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2020.101654 · Cited by 139
Jewell, T., Collyer, H., Gardner, T., Tchanturia, K., Simic, M., Fonagy, P., & Eisler, I. (2016) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22473 · Cited by 139
Currie, G. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199656615.001.0001 · Cited by 148
Are Women Always More Interpersonally Sensitive Than Men? Impact of Goals and Content Domain
Hall, J. A., & Mast, M. S. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207309192 · Cited by 138
“Bauer et al. (1997) found that this emotion showed the biggest female advantage of all the emotions they compared.”
BackgroundThe MR2: A multi-racial, mega-resolution database of facial stimuli
Strohminger, N., Gray, K. J., Chituc, V., Heffner, J., Schein, C., & Heagins, T. B. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0641-9 · Cited by 127
“…including psychological state, sex, age, health, and cultural identity, through cues such as muscle activation (Ekman & Friesen, 1976), eye gaze (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), skin texture (Fink et al., 2001), luminance (Russell, 2003), eye size (Sacco & Hugenberg, 2009), and face shape (Perrett…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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