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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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Lundqvist, L., & Lindner, H. Y. N. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3128-y · Cited by 148
Warrier, V., Toro, R., Chakrabarti, B., the iPSYCH-Broad autism group, Børglum, A. D., Grove, J., Hinds, D. A., Bourgeron, T., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2018) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-017-0082-6 · Cited by 161
“The Eyes Test has a low correlation with the EQ ( r ~ 0.10) 30,35 and measures only one facet of empathy, namely cognitive empathy.”
InfluentialSelf-citationBuilding Social Cohesion in Ethnically Mixed Schools: An Intervention on Perspective Taking
Alan, Ş., Baysan, C., Gümren, M., & Kubilay, E. (2021) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjab009 · Cited by 159
“Regressions control for respective baseline outcomes, Raven’s score, Eye Test score, gender, refugee status, age in months, a dummy variable for students who are developmentally challenged, class size, school size, district dummies, and randomization strata.”
MethodInfluentialSedeño, L., Couto, B., Melloni, M., Canales‐Johnson, A., Yoris, A., Báez, S., Esteves, S., Toledo, M. M. V., Barttfeld, P., Sigman, M., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098769 · Cited by 150
“, the ‘‘reading the mind in the eyes, [127]), instead, the IRI sub-scale evaluates the skill to take the outer perspective in ‘‘real life’’ situations [128].”
Backgroundde Achával, D., Costanzo, E. Y., Villarreal, M. F., Jáuregui, I. O., Chiodi, A., Castro, M. N., Fahrer, R. D., Leiguarda, R. C., Chu, E. M.-Y., & Guinjoan, S. M. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.019 · Cited by 135
Giusti, L., Mammarella, S., Salza, A., Vecchio, S. D., Ussorio, D., CASACCHIA, M., & Roncone, R. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00649-9 · Cited by 171
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Investigating Theory of Mind deficits in nonclinical psychopathy and Machiavellianism
Ali, F. M., & Chamorro‐Premuzic, T. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.027 · Cited by 134
Vetter, N. C., Altgassen, M., Phillips, L. H., Mahy, C. E. V., & Kliegel, M. (2013) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2012.733786 · Cited by 156
Haslbeck, F. B., András, J., Held, U., Bassler, D., Bucher, H.-U., & Hagmann, C. F. (2020) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102171 · Cited by 146
“processing of auditory stimuli in general (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
Is the Putative Mirror Neuron System Associated with Empathy? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Bekkali, S., Youssef, G. J., Donaldson, P. H., Albein-Urios, N., Hyde, C., & Enticott, P. G. (2021) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-020-09452-6 · Cited by 128
Empathic abilities in people with schizophrenia
Bora, E., Gökçen, S., & Veznedaroglu, B. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.05.017 · Cited by 134
“Partici- pants are asked to choose the appropriate response among four words that gives the best definition of themental state of the person (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundHigher-order social cognition in first-episode major depression
Ladegaard, N., Larsen, E. R., Videbech, P., & Lysaker, P. H. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.010 · Cited by 132
“Reports on visually more complex and ambiguous tasks such as the Reading the Mind in the Eye Test (RMET) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) are mixed, pointing both towards normal functioning (Kettle et al.”
Uzefovsky, F., Shalev, I., Israel, S., Edelman, S., Raz, Y., Mankuta, D., Knafo-Noam, A., & Ebstein, R. P. (2015) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.11.007 · Cited by 131
Thoma, P., Friedmann, C., & Suchan, B. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.024 · Cited by 134
Bons, D. M. A., van den Broek, E. L., Scheepers, F. E., Herpers, P. C. M., Rommelse, N. N. J., & Buitelaaar, J. K. (2012) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9689-5 · Cited by 159
“Basic emotions are perhaps easily recognized after training interventions in high-functioning ASD (Bölte et al. 2006; Ryan and Charragain 2010), while emotion recognition deficits may still exist for mixed or complex emotions (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001; Harms et al. 2010).”
BackgroundLane, A., Luminet, O., Nave, G., & Mikolajczak, M. (2016) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/jne.12384 · Cited by 129
A double-blind randomized controlled trial of oxytocin nasal spray in Prader Willi syndrome
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Social cognition in Huntington's disease: A meta-analysis.
Bora, E., Velakoulis, D., & Walterfang, M. (2016) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.10.001 · Cited by 138
“Reading the mind in the Eyes test (RMET) and recognition of faux pas [7,63] were the most commonly used ToM tests.”
MethodLindeman, M., Svedholm‐Häkkinen, A. M., & Lipsanen, J. O. (2014) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.09.008 · Cited by 135
fMRI of parents of children with Asperger Syndrome: A pilot study
Baron‐Cohen, S., RING, H. A., Chitnis, X. A., Wheelwright, S. J., Gregory, L. J., Williams, S., Brammer, M. J., & Bullmore, E. T. (2006) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.011 · Cited by 134
“We also used the 'Eyes' task (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997, 2001).”
Self-citationThe measurement of reflective function in adolescents with and without borderline traits
Ha, C., Sharp, C., Ensink, K., Fonagy, P., & Cirino, P. T. (2013) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.008 · Cited by 156
“The Child’s Eyes Test (CET) was developed by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001), and was used to assess for explicit mentalizing in this study.”
Ferguson, F. J., & Austin, E. J. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.04.009 · Cited by 134
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Social stimuli interfere with cognitive control in autism
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“Towards the goal of assessing the concurrent validity of the SST as a measure of ToM ability, we employed two additional measures of social cognition: the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) [99,100] and the Eyes Task [38].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSocial Disconnection in Schizophrenia and the General Community
Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., Lee, J., McCleery, A., Reddy, L. F., & Wynn, J. K. (2017) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx082 · Cited by 141
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“Theory of Mind Because literature is contradictory regarding the dimension of social cognition that is assessed by the RMET, with several authors considering this test a measure of mentalizing capacity (29, 60) and others considering it a measure of emotion recognition rather than of ToM ability (61), we chose to sepa…”
MethodMobile Applications to Improve Emotional Intelligence in Autism – A Review
Papoutsi, C., Drigas, A. S., & Skianis, C. A. (2018) · International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) · doi:10.3991/ijim.v12i6.9073 · Cited by 145
“1023/A:1016374617369 [16] Baron-Cohen, S.”
Background(2023) · doi:10.2196/54369 · Cited by 127
“ChatGPT-4’s and Bard’s performances on the RMET were scored using the standard manual [5] and contained a total score range of 0-36, with a higher score indicating higher emotion recognition.”
InfluentialAge-Related Decline in Mentalizing Skills Across Adult Life Span
Pardini, M., & Nichelli, P. (2009) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730802545259 · Cited by 129
“As pointed out by the authors (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), normal performance is significantly below ceiling in this version; moreover, the mental states represented in the test cover the whole range of the emotional spectrum and not only the extremes.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReasoning on the Autism Spectrum: A Dual Process Theory Account
Brosnan, M., Lewton, M., & Ashwin, C. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2742-4 · Cited by 143
“Autism traits were assessed using the AQ (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001a, b), which is a self-report measurement that is used to identify autism traits in clinical and non-clinical adult populations.”
BackgroundMethodThe relationship between the Dark Tetrad and a two-dimensional view of empathy
Pajevic, M., Vukosavljević‐Gvozden, T., Stevanović, N., & Neumann, C. S. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.009 · Cited by 128
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“Recent behavioral studies have shown that individual differences in autism spectrum traits measured using AQ are associated with the performance of social cognition processing tasks such as self-focused attention, mind reading, episodic memory, and inferring others’ mental state in both a population with ASD and that…”
BackgroundDo girls with anorexia nervosa have elevated autistic traits?
Baron‐Cohen, S., Jaffa, T., Davies, S., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Allison, C. L., & Wheelwright, S. J. (2013) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-4-24 · Cited by 137
“Third, both autism and anorexia show social anhedonia [14,15], deficits in ‘emotional intelligence’ [16,17], difficulties on ‘advanced’ theory of mind tests (such as the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test) [18-25], and alexithymia (difficulty in reflecting on one’s own emotion).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe eyes test as a measure of individual differences: how much of the variance reflects verbal IQ?
Peterson, E., & Miller, S. F. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00220 · Cited by 129
Empathizing: neurocognitive developmental mechanisms and individual differences
Chakrabarti, B., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2006) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(06)56022-4 · Cited by 136
“…people with autism or Asperger Syndrome have difficulties both in ToMM (when measured with mental-age appropriate tests) (Baron-Cohen et al 1997a, Baron-Cohen et al 2001, Happe 1994) and TESS (Attwood 1997, Baron-Cohen et al 1999a, Baron-Cohen et al 2003, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright 2004,…”
MethodSelf-citationVagal flexibility: A physiological predictor of social sensitivity.
Muhtadie, L., Koslov, K., Akinola, M., & Mendes, W. B. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000016 · Cited by 128
Agenesis of the corpus callosum and autism: a comprehensive comparison
Paul, L. K., Corsello, C., Kennedy, D. P., & Adolphs, R. (2014) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awu070 · Cited by 127
“Results were scored relative to normative data for the revised version gathered from a sample of 122 adults recruited from the community (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodGermine, L. T., Dunn, E. C., McLaughlin, K. A., & Smoller, J. W. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129612 · Cited by 124
“These included objective measures of face discrimination for emotion and identity [17,18], face memory [19], theory of mind (or mental state inferencing) [20], as well as self-report measures of social motivation [21,22] and social support [23].”
BackgroundMethodSocial cognitive deficits and their neural correlates in progressive supranuclear palsy
Ghosh, B. C. P., Calder, A. J., Peers, P. V., Lawrence, A. D., Acosta-Cabronero, J., Pereira, J. M., Hodges, J. R., & Rowe, J. B. (2012) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/aws128 · Cited by 123
“…and dynamic tests such as the Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT) (Kipps et al., 2009b; Rankin et al., 2009); the Mind in the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Gregory et al., 2002; Stone et al., 2003; Torralva et al., 2007; Hirao et al., 2008); cartoons of social situations…”
Charting the typical and atypical development of the social brain
Pelphrey, K. A., & Carter, E. J. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000515 · Cited by 126
Sub‐threshold autism traits: The role of trait emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility
Gökçen, E., Petrides, K. V., Hudry, K., Frederickson, N. L., & Smillie, L. D. (2013) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12033 · Cited by 136
“1London Psychometric Laboratory, University College London, UK 2Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Australia 3Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, UK 4Melbourne School of Psychological…”
The effects of oxytocin on social cognition and behaviour in frontotemporal dementia
Jesso, S., Morlog, D., Ross, S., Pell, M. D., Pasternak, S., Mitchell, D. G. V., Kertesz, A., & Finger, E. C. (2011) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awr171 · Cited by 136
“The Mind in the Eyes task (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a) is a validated measure of one form of Theory of Mind processing—the ability to judge a person’s internal mental state based on the expression of his/her eye region.”
MethodUnderstanding others: Emotion recognition in humans and other animals
Ferretti, V., & Papaleo, F. (2018) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12544 · Cited by 142
What is the emotional core of the multidimensional Machiavellian personality trait?
Aïn, S. A., Carré, A., Fantini‐Hauwel, C., Baudouin, J., & Besche‐Richard, C. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00454 · Cited by 133
CNTRICS Final Task Selection: Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience-Based Measures
Carter, C. S., Barch, D. M., Gur, R. E., Gur, R. E., Pinkham, A. E., & Ochsner, K. N. (2008) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn157 · Cited by 139
Aging of theory of mind: The influence of educational level and cognitive processing
Li, X., Wang, K., Wang, F., Tao, Q., Xie, Y., & Cheng, Q. (2012) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.673724 · Cited by 133
“Most previous studies assessing ToM have focused on developmental trends in young children or impairment in clinical populations with social deficits (eg, in those with traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, and autism; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ; Brune, 2005 ; Perner & Lang, 1999 ).”
BackgroundAutism and Oxytocin: New Developments in Translational Approaches to Therapeutics
Green, J. J., & Hollander, E. (2010) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.nurt.2010.05.006 · Cited by 124
Boucher, J. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361311430403 · Cited by 142
In the Mind of the Market: Theory of Mind Biases Value Computation during Financial Bubbles
Martino, B. D., O’Doherty, J. P., Ray, D., Bossaerts, P. L., & Camerer, C. F. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.003 · Cited by 117
“To test this hypothesis further, we retested a subset of participants (n = 14) who had originally participated in the bubble experiment using an online version of the eye gaze test to assess their ToM skills (Baron Cohen et al., 2001).”
InfluentialIncreased neural responses to empathy for pain might explain how acute stress increases prosociality
Tomova, L., Majdandžić, J., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C., Heinrichs, M., & Lamm, C. (2016) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsw146 · Cited by 119
Kim, Y. J., Engel, D., Woolley, A. W., Lin, J. Y., McArthur, N., & Malone, T. W. (2017) · ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1145/2998181.2998185 · Cited by 139
“For social perceptiveness, we used the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME) test [6], in which participants were asked to guess the mental states of 36 people based on the pictures of their eyes only.”
MethodPervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
Towbin, K. E. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939345.ch6 · Cited by 124
Theory of mind impairments in patients with semantic dementia
Duval, C., Bejanin, A., Piolino, P., Laisney, M., Sayette, V. D. L., Belliard, S., Eustache, F., & Desgranges, B. (2012) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awr309 · Cited by 125
Lee, Y., Duchaine, B., Wilson, H. R., & Nakayama, K. (2009) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.07.012 · Cited by 126
Adenzato, M., Brambilla, M., Manenti, R., Lucia, L. D., Trojano, L., Garofalo, S., Enrici, I., & Cotelli, M. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep41219 · Cited by 132
Measuring Theory of Mind in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Brewer, N., Young, R. L., & Barnett, E. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3080-x · Cited by 122
“, flirtatious, hostile) with the expression conveyed by an image of a pair of eyes (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundHoe, M., Nakagami, E., Green, M. F., & Brekke, J. S. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712000578 · Cited by 129
“It is a multifaceted construct that may consist of at least five possible domains : (i) theory of mind (Frith, 1992 ; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), (ii) social perception (Penn et al.”
BackgroundEbert, S. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104739 · Cited by 156
Autistic Symptomatology, Face Processing Abilities, and Eye Fixation Patterns
Kirchner, J. C., Hatri, A., Heekeren, H. R., & Dziobek, I. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1032-9 · Cited by 120
Oxytocin in the socioemotional brain: implications for psychiatric disorders
Kirsch, P. (2015) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2015.17.4/pkirsch · Cited by 123
Peñuelas‐Calvo, I., Sareen, A., Sevilla‐Llewellyn‐Jones, J., & Fernández‐Berrocal, P. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3814-4 · Cited by 130
Ibáñez, A. M., Petroni, A., Urquina, H., Torrente, F. M., Torralva, T., Hurtado, E., Guex, R., Blenkmann, A. O., Beltrachini, L., Muravchik, C. H., et al. (2011) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.620769 · Cited by 120
“RMET scores correlated significantly with N170 face valence discrimination (happy– angry; r = .51, p = .03).”
MethodInfluentialCacciotti-Saija, C., Langdon, R., Ward, P. B., Hickie, I. B., Scott, E. M., Naismith, S. L., Moore, L., Alvares, G. A., Redoblado Hodge, M. A., & Guastella, A. J. (2015) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu094 · Cited by 119
Functional Benefits of (Modest) Alcohol Consumption
Dunbar, R., Launay, J., Wlodarski, R., Robertson, C., Pearce, E., Carney, J., & MacCarron, P. (2016) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-016-0058-4 · Cited by 128
Murray, K., Johnston, K., Cunnane, H., Kerr, C. J., Spain, D., Gillan, N., Hammond, N., Murphy, D., & Happe, F. G. E. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1744 · Cited by 142
“Participants were only recruited into the study if they had an Autism Quotient (AQ) score below 32 [Baron-Cohen et al., 2001] No participants who opted into the study had to be rejected from the pilot due to the presence of high ASD traits as measured by the AQ (M 5 10.80 SD 5 3.81 range 5 6–17).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPreventing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: insights from pre-symptomatic neurodegenerative diseases
Benatar, M. G., Wuu, J., McHutchison, C. A., Postuma, R. B., Boeve, B. F., Petersen, R. C., Ross, C. A., Rosen, H. J., Arias, J. J., Fradette, S., et al. (2021) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awab404 · Cited by 129
Dodich, A., Cerami, C., Canessa, N., Crespi, C., Iannaccone, S., Marcone, A., Realmuto, S., Lettieri, G., Perani, D., & Cappa, S. F. (2015) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-015-2281-3 · Cited by 130
Integrating intention and context: assessing social cognition in adults with Asperger syndrome
Báez, S., Rattazzi, A., González-Gadea, M. L., Torralva, T., Vigliecca, N. S., Decety, J., Manes, F. F., & Ibáñez, A. M. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00302 · Cited by 135
Ongoing development of social cognition in adolescence
Vetter, N. C., Leipold, K., Kliegel, M., Phillips, L. H., & Altgassen, M. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.718324 · Cited by 137
“However, there was a trend towards better emotion recognition in females, which corroborates previous findings (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWhat about theory of mind after severe brain injury?
Havet-Thomassin, V., Allain, P., Etcharry‐Bouyx, F., & Gall, D. L. (2006) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699050500340655 · Cited by 118
“The first one was the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ Test (RME) revised version [19].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTauber, M., Mantoulan, C., Copet, P., Jauregui, J., Demeer, G., Diene, G., Rogé, B., Laurier, V., Ehlinger, V., Arnaud, C., et al. (2011) · Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases · doi:10.1186/1750-1172-6-47 · Cited by 117
“A shortened test with 19 images from the 36-item revised version [20] was chosen by the team psychologist.”
MethodGervais, W. M. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613489836 · Cited by 127
Early life experiences and social cognition in major psychiatric disorders: A systematic review
Rokita, K., Dauvermann, M. R., & Donohoe, G. J. (2018) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.06.006 · Cited by 122
“4 SZ: schizophrenia; SZD: schizoaffective disorder; BD: bipolar disorder; BPD: borderline personality disorder; MDD: major depressive disorder; PTSD: posttraumatic stress disorder; FEP: first-episode psychosis; LP: low performance; AP: average performance; HP: high performance; PAM: Psychosis Attachment Measure; CT: c…”
MethodInfluentialSocial cognition in frontal lobe epilepsy
Farrant, A., Morris, R. G., Russell, T. A., Elwes, R. D. C., Akanuma, N., Alarcón, G., & Koutroumanidis, M. (2005) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2005.07.018 · Cited by 119
“[40] as those that involve attribution of a belief or intention to the person.”
BackgroundInfluentialSexuality and Gender Role in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Control Study
Bejerot, S., & Eriksson, J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087961 · Cited by 133
“Quotient (AQ) [28] and ‘‘The Reading the Mind in the Eyes test’’ [29].”
Impairments of Interpersonal Functioning: Empathy and Intimacy in Borderline Personality Disorder
Jeung, H., & Herpertz, S. C. (2014) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000357191 · Cited by 133
Baribeau, D. A., Doyle-Thomas, K. A. R., Dupuis, A., Iaboni, A., Crosbie, J., McGinn, H., Arnold, P. D., Brian, J., Kushki, A., Nicolson, R., et al. (2015) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.03.016 · Cited by 111
Oxytocin administration enhances controlled social cognition in patients with schizophrenia
Woolley, J. D., Chuang, B., Lam, O., Lai, W., O’Donovan, A., Rankin, K. P., Mathalon, D. H., & Vinogradov, S. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.04.024 · Cited by 116
“Published by Elsevier Ltd.”
The Development and Validation of the Empathy Components Questionnaire (ECQ)
Batchelder, L., Brosnan, M., & Ashwin, C. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169185 · Cited by 117
“For example, females are better able than males in reading the mental and emotional states of others from only their eye regions [65,66,174], and in recognizing faux pas situations [175].”
BackgroundAlós‐Ferrer, C., & Farolfi, F. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00887 · Cited by 131
“(2007) showed that OT improves the ability to infer the mental states of others from pictures of the eyes regions (“Reading the Mind in the Eye Test,” Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). Recently, Marsh et al. (2017) asked German male students to make (costly) donations for either refugees (outgroup) or locals (ingroup) in nee…”
BackgroundDinsdale, N. L., & Crespi, B. J. (2012) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.2.172 · Cited by 141
“…students (61% female) High BPD group more accureately , p < .01 Franzen et al., 2011 ; (7) Bosacki, 2000; (8) Russell et al., 2007; (9) Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; (10) Baron-Cohen et al., 1999; (11) Smeets et al., 2009. tion of angry faces while high borderline features and high…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe development of autistic social traits across childhood and adolescence in males and females
Mandy, W., Pellicano, L., St Pourcain, B., Skuse, D., & Heron, J. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12913 · Cited by 117
Relationship among Glutamine, γ-Aminobutyric Acid, and Social Cognition in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Cochran, D., Şıkoğlu, E. M., Hodge, S. M., Edden, R. A. E., Foley, A., Kennedy, D. N., Moore, C. M., & Frazier, J. A. (2015) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2014.0112 · Cited by 120
“Adolescent participants were also administered the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
InfluentialOxytocin and Autism: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials
Preti, A., Melis, M., Siddi, S., Vellante, M., Doneddu, G., & Fadda, R. (2014) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2013.0040 · Cited by 118
“At baseline and after the 6 weeks of treatment, participants were also tested on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (DANVA) (Baum and Nowicki 1989), and on a measure of quality of life, the World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire (W…”
InfluentialThe Eyes as Windows Into Other Minds
Großmann, T. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616654457 · Cited by 127
“…it is critical to emphasize that although research suggests that a great number of emotional and mental states can be discerned from the eye region (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), the specific emotional and mental states that can be detected from the eyes and the facial features surrounding the eye…”
BackgroundInfluentialAn eye for the I: Preferential attention to the eyes of ingroup members.
Kawakami, K., Williams, A., Sidhu, D. M., Choma, B. L., Rodríguez‐Bailón, R., Cañadas, E., Chung, D., & Hugenberg, K. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036838 · Cited by 128
Lysaker, P. H., Olesek, K. L., Warman, D. M., Martin, J. M., Salzman, A. K., Nicolò, G., Salvatore, G., & Dimaggio, G. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.016 · Cited by 114
“…ameasure of the verbal-reasoning aspect of ToM, the Hinting Task (Corcoran et al., 1995), a measure of the non-verbal aspect, the Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and another test involving both verbal and non-verbal elements, the Bell Lysaker Emotion Recognition Task (BLERT, Bryson et…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBrüne, M., Schaub, D., Juckel, G., & Langdon, R. A. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.03.015 · Cited by 113
“(2006), as well as McGlade and co-workers (2008), found a significant association between mental state attribution and social functioning, using the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task” (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodKret, M. E., & Ploeger, A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.011 · Cited by 115
Theories of Cognitive Distortions in Sexual Offending
Ciardha, C. Ó., & Ward, T. J. (2012) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838012467856 · Cited by 114
Kim, J. J., Cunnington, R., & Kirby, J. N. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.023 · Cited by 125
Lerner, M. D., McMahon, C. M., & Britton, N. (2013) · Adolescent Health Medicine and Therapeutics · doi:10.2147/ahmt.s25402 · Cited by 122
Hypermentalizing, attachment, and epistemic trust in adolescent BPD: Clinical illustrations.
Bo, S., Sharp, C., Fonagy, P., & Kongerslev, M. (2015) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000161 · Cited by 136
Adolescents with tetralogy of Fallot: neuropsychological assessment and structural brain imaging
Bellinger, D. C., Rivkin, M. J., DeMaso, D., Robertson, R. L., Stopp, C., Dunbar-Masterson, C., Wypij, D., & Newburger, J. W. (2015) · Cardiology in the Young · doi:10.1017/s1047951114000031 · Cited by 113
Men, women and STEM: Why the differences and what should be done?
Stewart-Williams, S., & Halsey, L. G. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/0890207020962326 · Cited by 117
Goldman, M. B., Gomes, A. M., Carter, C. S., & Lee, R. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2193-8 · Cited by 112
“Pictures were a subset from Ekman and Friesen (1976) previously used to demonstrate altered responses in facial affect discrimination in patients with amygdala pathology (Adolphs et al. 1999), autism ( Baron-Cohen et al. 2001 ), and schizophrenia (Addington et al. 2006).”
MethodBaksh, R. A., Abrahams, S., Auyeung, B., & MacPherson, S. E. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195818 · Cited by 114
An android for enhancing social skills and emotion recognition in people with autism
Pioggia, G., Igliozzi, R., Ferro, M., Ahluwalia, A. D., Muratori, F., & Rossi, D. D. (2005) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2005.856076 · Cited by 114
“The “reading-the-mind-in-the-eyes” test, revised version, is used for assessing this function [35].”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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