Heritability for adolescent antisocial behavior differs with socioeconomic status: gene–environment interaction

May combine two claims.

For boys, dropping the shared and non-shared environmental interaction effects for occupational status also significantly worsened model fit (p=.05 and p≤.00, respectively).

“There was also a decrease in the fit of the model when we dropped the shared (bc) and the nonshared environmental interaction effects (be), (p ¼ .05)and (p £ .00),respectively.”

May combine two claims.

For boys, dropping the genetic interaction effect for occupational status significantly worsened model fit (p=.05), indicating that boys' sensitivity to display antisocial behavior differs as a function of the environment.

“For boys, when dropping the genetic interaction effect (ba) for occupational status, there was a significantly worse fit of the model (p ¼ .05)compared to the full model, indicating that adolescent boys' sensitivity to display antisocial behavior differ as a function of the environment.”

May combine two claims.

For boys, heritability was higher in the more advantaged neighborhood group (A=37%) than in the less advantaged group (A=1%), while shared environment was higher in the less advantaged group (C=69%) than in the more advantaged group (C=13%).

“Consistent with the analyses where socioeconomic status measures were used continuously, heritability was higher in the more advantaged neighborhood group (A ¼ 37%) compared to the less advantaged neighborhood group (A ¼ 1%).Conversely, the shared environment was higher in the less advantaged neighborhood group (C ¼ 69%) compared to the more advantaged neighborhood group (C ¼ 13%).”

May combine two claims.

For boys, a similar pattern to girls emerged for neighborhood ethnic diversity, with a p-value of .08 for the shared environmental interaction.

“We also plotted neighborhood ethnic diversity for boys, as the p-value for the shared environmental interaction (bc) was .08,and a similar pattern emerged for boys as for girls (Diagram 1c).”

May combine two claims.

For girls, the influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher in low crime areas and shared environmental effects lower, compared to high crime areas.

“The influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher in low crime areas, while the shared environmental factor was lower, compared to high crime areas (Diagram 1d).”

May combine two claims.

For boys, there were no significant interaction effects for ethnic diversity or basic educational level.

“For boys, there were no significant interaction effects for ethnic diversity or basic educational level.”

May combine two claims.

For girls, genetic effects were higher in more advantaged neighborhoods (A=69%) than less advantaged neighborhoods (A=61%), and shared environment was higher in less advantaged neighborhoods (C=16%) than more advantaged neighborhoods (C=6%), but these estimates could be constrained equal across groups (p=.88).

“For girls, genetic effects were also higher in more advantaged neighborhoods (A ¼ 69%) compared to less advantaged neighborhoods (A ¼ 61%), and the shared environment was higher in less advantaged neighborhoods (C ¼ 16%) compared to more advantaged neighborhoods (C ¼ 6%), but the estimates could be constrained across the two neighborhood groups (Dv 2 ¼ .68;Ddf ¼ 3; p ¼ .88).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mean antisocial behavior scores were consistently higher in boys than in girls.

“Mean values were consistently higher in boys compared to girls; (t 2102 ¼ 5.87, p £ .001).”

May combine two claims.

For girls, the influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher and shared environmental effects lower in areas with low levels of ethnic diversity compared to areas with high levels of ethnic diversity.

“Plotting the variance component as a function of the moderator variable neighborhood ethnic diversity for girls indicated that the influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher and the influence of shared environmental effects was lower in areas with low levels of ethnic diversity as compared to areas with high levels of ethnic diversity (Diagram 1b).”

May combine two claims.

For boys, shared environment (C=52%) was more important than genetic effects, whereas for girls genetic factors (A=59%) were more important than shared environmental effects.

“As can be seen, there were gender differences; for boys, shared environment (C ¼ 52%) was more important than genetic effects, whereas for girls genetic factors were more important (A ¼ 59%) than shared environmental effects.”

May combine two claims.

Intraclass correlations for antisocial behavior were significant and DZ correlations were greater than half the MZ correlations, indicating genetic and shared environmental influences.

“The intraclass correlations on antisocial behavior were all significant (p £ .001):MZ/ DZ male: .60/.51; MZ/DZ female: .73/.49; and opposite-sex twins: .27.The DZ correlations were greater than half the MZ correlations, indicating the presence of genetic and shared environmental influences on antisocial behavior.”

May combine two claims.

The influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher in families with high occupational status, while shared environmental effects were lower; in families with low occupational status, genetic effects were lower and shared environmental effects higher.

“Diagram 1a illustrates that the influence of genetic effects on antisocial behavior was higher in families with high occupational status, while the shared environmental effects were lower.”

• Also stated in: § Test for interaction · plain

  “genetic effects were lower and the shared environmental effects were higher.”

May combine two claims.

For boys, shared environmental influences on antisocial behavior were lower in better-off families and higher in less advantaged families.

“Shared environmental influences were lower in better-off families and higher in less advantaged families.”

May combine two claims.

The same pattern of shared environmental interactions was found for ethnic diversity for girls, ethnic diversity for boys, and crime-rate for girls.

“The same pattern was found for ethnic diversity for girls, ethnic diversity for boys and for crime-rate for girls (i.e., neighborhood socioeconomic conditions).”

May combine two claims.

Significant interaction effects were found between the non-shared environment and family occupational status on antisocial behavior for boys, neighborhood rate of crime for boys, and neighborhood ethnic diversity for girls.

“We found significant interaction effects between the non-shared environment and family occupational status on antisocial behavior for boys, neighborhood rate of crime for boys and neighborhood ethnic diversity for girls.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mean values for antisocial behavior were consistently higher in boys compared to girls.

“Similar to other studies, mean values for antisocial behavior were found to be consistently higher in boys compared to girls (Rutter, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2003).”

• cites Rutter, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The best-fitting model indicated that the same genes and environments are important for boys and girls, but their relative importance differs.

“Thus, the best-fitting model for antisocial behavior indicated that the same genes and environments are important for boys and girls, but the relative importance of the genetic and environmental influences are different.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A functional polymorphism in the MAOA gene moderates the effects of a risk environment on the development of antisocial behavior.

“A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene has been found to moderate the effects of a risk environment on the development of antisocial behavior (Caspi et al., 2002;Foley et al., 2004).”

• cites Caspi et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Foley et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Family socioeconomic status and neighborhood socioeconomic conditions are established risk factors for antisocial behavior, but they explain only a fraction of the variance.

“There are several risk factors for the development of antisocial behavior and even though both family socioeconomic status and neighborhood socioeconomic conditions are established risk factors (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000;Rutter, Giller, & Hagell, 1998), they only explain a fraction of the variance.”

• cites Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rutter, Giller, & Hagell, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The antisocial behavior questionnaire items have high validity (97.5% not confused by questions) and reliability (90% test-retest).

“The items have been shown to have high validity (e.g., not being confused by the questions: 97.5%) and reliability (e.g., test-retest: 90%) (Junger-Tas et al., 1994).”

• cites Junger-Tas et al., 1994Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A twin study found that children with high genetic vulnerability for behavior problems were less sensitive to the effects of being small for gestational age.

“A study by Wichers et al. (2002) using this approach found that children with high genetic vulnerability for behavior problems were less sensitive to the effects of being small for gestational age.”

• cites Wichers et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Genetic influences on antisocial behavior were more important in adolescents in socioeconomically more advantaged environments, whereas the shared environment was higher in adolescents in socioeconomically less advantaged environments.

“Genetic influences on antisocial behavior were more important in adolescents in socioeconomically more advantaged environments, whereas the shared environment was higher in adolescents in socioeconomically less advantaged environments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The wave 3 self-report questionnaire had an 82% response rate and the wave 3 parent-report questionnaire had a 74% response rate.

“This study used data from the wave 3 self-report questionnaire, to which 2,368 (82%) of the adolescents responded, and from the wave 3 parent-report questionnaire, to which 1,067 (74%) of the parents responded.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The association between family socioeconomic status and antisocial behavior is relatively weak.

“Several studies have demonstrated that the association between family socioeconomic status and antisocial behavior is relatively weak (Hawkins et al., 1998).”

• cites Hawkins et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Participants and non-participants did not differ significantly in neighborhood unemployment level, basic educational level, buying power, or crime-rate.

“No significant differences were found for unemployment level (t 2925 ¼ )1.13, p ¼.26), basic educational level (t 2925 ¼ )1.65, p ¼ .10),buying power (t 2925 ¼ )1.27, p ¼ .21)or neighborhood crime-rate (t 2937 ¼ .97,p ¼ .33).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Neighborhood socioeconomic conditions and antisocial behavior are significantly but weakly correlated.

“These studies provide evidence that neighborhood socioeconomic conditions and antisocial behavior is significantly, but weakly, correlated (Elliott et al., 1996;Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Wikstro ¨m, & Loeber, 2000).”

• cites Elliott et al., 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Wikstro ¨m, & Loeber, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Zygosity for same-sex twins was determined using discriminant analysis of DNA-validated questionnaire items concerning physical similarity and confusion.

“Zygosity for same-sex twins was determined using discriminant analysis of DNA-validated questionnaire items concerning the twins' physical similarity and the frequency with which people confuse them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Miles and Carey (1997) reported that the magnitude of genetic influences on aggression was higher for males than for females.

“whereas Miles and Carey (1997) reported in their meta-analysis that the magnitude of genetic influences on aggression was higher for males than for females.”

• cites Miles and Carey (1997)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The use of self-reports of delinquency may introduce biases such as poor memory, exaggeration and concealment.

“Although self-report of delinquency includes instances that are not captured by official records, there could be biases, such as poor memory, exaggeration and concealment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Collective efficacy affects the levels of violent street crime.

“Sampson et al. (1997) have demonstrated that collective efficacy affects the levels of violent street crime.”

• cites Sampson et al. (1997) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The polygenic multiple threshold model suggests that the less affected sex (females) may need a greater liability to express antisocial behavior, and relatives of an affected female are at greater risk of developing antisocial behavior than relatives of an affected male.

“The model suggests that the less affected sex, i.e., females, may need a greater liability to express antisocial behavior, and so relatives of an affected female are at greater risk of developing antisocial behavior than relatives of an affected male.”

• cites Rhee & Waldman, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals at genetic risk show the greatest vulnerability to environmental adversities.

“These studies have demonstrated that it is those individuals who are at genetic risk who show the greatest vulnerability to environmental adversities.”

May combine two claims.

Both family socioeconomic status and neighborhood socioeconomic conditions moderate the influence of genetic and environmental effects on antisocial behavior.

“Our findings suggest that an explanation for this could be that both family socioeconomic status and neighborhood socioeconomic conditions are important, but that they moderate the influence of genetic and environmental effects on antisocial behavior.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are inconsistencies in the literature regarding sex differences in heritability of antisocial behavior.

“There are inconsistencies in the literature regarding sex differences in heritability of antisocial behavior.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The focus of previous studies and ours differs: previous studies evaluate mean differences while ours, based on a twin design, focuses on population variance.

“This might seem like a contradiction, but it should be noted that the focus of the previous studies and ours differs: the former evaluate mean differences while ours, based on a twin design, focuses on population variance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Interaction effects are generally quite small and hence difficult to identify.

“Furthermore, interaction effects are generally quite small and hence difficult to identify (Rowe, 2003), suggesting that a larger sample might be required.”

• cites Rowe, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The competence of the family to provide sufficient parenting is probably of more importance in lower socioeconomic areas, whereas in higher socioeconomic areas other structural factors, for example neighbors and strong school attachment, might compensate for poor parenting.

“As such, the competence of the family to provide sufficient parenting is probably of more importance, whereas in higher socioeconomic areas other structural factors, for example neighbors and strong school attachment, might compensate for poor parenting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Using cross-sectional data makes it difficult to distinguish between normative or adolescent-limited antisocial behavior and more serious, persistent antisocial behavior.

“Using cross-sectional data makes it difficult to distinguish between normative or adolescent-limited antisocial behavior and more serious, persistent antisocial behavior.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rhee and Waldman (2002) concluded that the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior is equal for both sexes.

“Rhee and Waldman (2002) concluded in their meta-analysis that the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior is equal for both sexes”

• cites Rhee and Waldman (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source