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Cited by 158Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentPersonality Traits and Psychology

Genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity: A meta-analysis of twin, family and adoption studies

Open access
Bezdjian, Serena, Baker, Laura A., Tuvblad, Catherine·2011·Clinical Psychology Review
DOI 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.005PMC PMC3176916
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Abstract

A meta-analysis of twin, family and adoption studies was conducted to estimate the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity. The best fitting model for 41 key studies (58 independent samples from 14 month old infants to adults; N=27,147) included equal proportions of variance due to genetic (0.50) and non-shared environmental (0.50) influences, with genetic effects being both additive (0.38) and non-additive (0.12). Shared environmental effects were unimportant in explaining individual differences in impulsivity. Age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption) were all significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity. The relative contribution of genetic effects (broad sense heritability) and unique environmental effects were also found to be important throughout development from childhood to adulthood. Total genetic effects were found to be important for all ages, but appeared to be strongest in children. Analyses also demonstrated that genetic effects appeared to be stronger in males than in females. Method of assessment (laboratory tasks vs. questionnaires), however, was not a significant moderator of the genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity. These results provide a structured synthesis of existing behavior genetic studies on impulsivity by providing a clearer understanding of the relative genetic and environmental contributions in impulsive traits through various stages of development.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This meta-analysis of 41 twin, family, and adoption studies (58 independent samples; N = 27,147) found that impulsivity variance was best explained by an ADE model: additive genetic 0.38, non-additive genetic 0.12, and non-shared environmental 0.50, with shared environmental effects negligible. Age, sex, and study design significantly moderated genetic and environmental influences, whereas assessment method and publication date did not.

Key findings

  • Across all included data, the best-fitting model was ADE, with additive genetic effects A = .38, non-additive genetic effects D = .12, and non-shared environmental effects E = .50; shared family environment was negligible. Total genetic and non-shared environmental variance were each approximately 0.50.
  • Age was a significant moderator: broad-sense heritability ranged from h²B = .41 to .59 across infancy and adulthood, with children showing A = .47, D = .12, E = .41 and adults showing A = .31, D = .10, E = .59.
  • Sex was a significant moderator: with opposite-sex twins included, the best-fitting ACDE model gave males A = .45, C = 0, D = .19, E = .36 and females A = .09, C = .045, D = .35, E = .51; excluding opposite-sex twins, the ADE model gave males A = .41, D = .12, E = .47 and females A = .23, D = .26, E = .51.
  • Study design was a significant moderator, but assessment method was not (Δχ²(4, N = 27,147) = 0.78, p = .95), and publication date was not (Δχ²(4, N = 27,147) = 4.28, p = .37). Subscale analyses found ADE best for lack of planning, lack of persistence, and sensation seeking, with genetic effects accounting for 51–69% of variance and non-shared environment 31–49%.

Methods

  • Systematic search of PsycInfo and Medline/PubMed from January 1, 1970 to February 1, 2011; from an initial pool of 121 studies, 41 studies (34%) met inclusion criteria, yielding 58 independent samples, 153 data groups, and N = 27,147 twins, adoptees, and relatives.
  • Included studies used genetically informative twin, family, or adoption designs; measured impulsivity via laboratory tasks or questionnaires; reported intraclass or Pearson correlations; and were human and English-language.
  • Effect sizes were analyzed with structural equation modeling in Mx, comparing ACDE, ACE, ADE, AE, and CE models using chi-square and AIC; moderators (assessment method, age, sex, study design, publication date) were tested via chi-square difference tests, and subscale analyses examined lack of planning, sensation seeking, and lack of persistence.

Limitations

  • The paper states that it focused only on biometric twin and family studies, excluding animal and molecular studies; only correlations were analyzed, so raw data and variances across relative types, sex, or age could not be compared; and only one psychophysiological study (p300 during Go/NoGo) was excluded.
  • The paper states that possible confounding among moderator variables—especially age, sex, assessment method, and study type—was not directly examined, and that study-design results should be interpreted cautiously because there were far more twin studies than adoption/family studies.
  • The text makes evident additional limitations: age analyses were confounded by differing proportions of twin versus adoption studies, laboratory versus survey measures, sex distribution, and publication era across age groups; the broad definition of impulsivity and reliance on full-scale effect sizes limited subscale specificity; and urgency could not be meaningfully analyzed because only two studies were categorized under that construct.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.005

Cites

203 of 203 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

7 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 31 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Study design (twin vs. adoption) was a significant moderator of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.

    “Age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption) were all significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Age was a significant moderator of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.

    “Age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption) were all significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Sex was a significant moderator of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.

    “Age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption) were all significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Total genetic effects were important for all ages.

    “Total genetic effects were found to be important for all ages, but appeared to be strongest in children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the best-fitting model for the 41 key studies (58 independent samples, N=27,147), genetic influences accounted for 0.50 of the variance in impulsivity.

    “The best fitting model for 41 key studies (58 independent samples from 14 month old infants to adults; N = 27,147) included equal proportions of variance due to genetic (0.50) and non-shared environmental (0.50) influences”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 10
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The meta-analysis included 41 studies, 58 independent samples, and 153 data groups, with a total N=27,147 twins, adoptees, and relatives.

    “From the 41 total studies, there were 58 independent samples and 153 data groups used for a total N= 27,147 twins, adoptees and relatives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Parameter estimates for each age group: infants A= .28, D= .25, E= .47; children A= .47, D= .12, E = .41; adolescents A= .31, D = .23 E= .46; adults A= .31, D= .10, E= .59.

    “Both additive and non-additive genetic effects as well as non-shared environmental effects were each important in infants (A= .28, D= .25, E= .47), in children (A= .47, D= .12, E = .41), in adolescents (A= .31, D = .23 E= .46), and in adults (A= .31, D= .10, E= .59) (see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Lack of persistence exhibited the highest broad-sense heritability estimate with additive and non-additive genetic effects explaining over two-thirds of the total variance.

    “Lack of persistence exhibited the highest broad-sense heritability estimate with both additive and non-additive genetic effects explaining over two-thirds of the total variance in lack of persistence (see Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Significant differences in genetic and environmental influences were found across age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption studies), but not for method of assessment or publication date.

    “Briefly, significant differences in genetic and environmental influences were found across age, sex, and study design (twin vs. adoption studies), but not for method of assessment or publication date.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The ADE model was the best fitting model compared to the other models for all data, with additive genetic (A) = .38, non-additive genetic (D) = .12, and non-shared environmental (E) = .50 effects.

    “The ADE model was the best fitting model compared to the other models as illustrated by the lowest AIC value (see Table 3), with moderate to high additive genetic and unique environmental effects [A = .38, D = .12, E = .50].”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “Accordingly, there were strong additive genetic (A= .38), and non-shared environmental effects (E = .50), and some non-additive genetic effects (D= .12) on impulsivity.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
      “Thus, the results from the present meta-analysis demonstrated that approximately half of the variance in impulsivity was explained by genetic influences (additive genetic and non-additive genetic factors) and the remaining portion was explained by non-shared environmental influences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The ADE model was the best-fitting model for each of the four age groups, although the magnitude of effects varied across ages.

    “As seen in Figure 1, the ADE model was the best-fitting model for each of the four age groups (in Figure 1, N represents to the number of twin pairs), although the magnitude of effects varied across ages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Additive and non-additive genetic effects accounted for 51-69% of the total variance, while non-shared environmental effects contributed 31-49% of the variance in impulsive behaviors within each subscale category.

    “Additive and non-additive genetic effects accounted for an overall 51–69% of the total variance, while non-shared environmental effects contributed to the remainder of the variance in impulsive behaviors within each category of subscales (31–49%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The best-fitting model for older studies was an AE model (A = .45; E =.55), while the best fitting model for more recent studies was an ADE model (A = .38; D = .12; E = .50).

    “In our analyses, the best-fitting model for older studies was an AE model with (A = .45; E =.55), while the best fitting model for the more recent studies was an ADE model with (A = .38; D = .12; E = .50).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant differences between older studies (1970-1985) and more recent studies (1986-2011) (Δχ2 (4, N=27,147) = 4.28, p = 0.37), with similar heritability estimates.

    “There were no significant differences between older studies (published from 1970 – 1985) and more recent studies (published from 1986–2011) [Δχ2 (4, N=27,147) = 4.28, p = 0.37; see Table 4], with similar heritability estimates in new and older studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Ninety to ninety-five percent of the included studies assessed zygosity through questionnaire measures.

    “Ninety to ninety-five percent of the studies included assessed zygosity through questionnaire measures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous research has demonstrated that for different phenotypes a pattern of decrease in shared environment and a concomitant increase in heritability and non-shared environmental effects during development, particularly for personality traits and cognitive abilities.

    “Previous research has demonstrated that for different phenotypes a pattern of decrease in shared environment and a concomitant increase in heritability and non-shared environmental effects during development, particularly for personality traits and cognitive abilities (Scarr & McCartney, 1983; Loehlin, 1992; Miles and Carey, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Scarr & McCartney, 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Loehlin, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Miles and Carey, 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The four-factor structure of impulsivity has been confirmed on several independent samples.

    “To date, this four-factor structure of impulsivity has been confirmed on several, independent samples (Lynam & Miller, 2004; Smith et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lynam & Miller, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Smith et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Whiteside and Lynam (2001) identified four etiologically distinct constructs of impulsivity: urgency, lack of planning, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking.

    “Whiteside and Lynam (2001) identified four (etiologically) distinct constructs of impulsivity namely, (1) urgency or negative urgency, (2) lack of planning, (3) lack of perseverance, and (4) sensation seeking.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Whiteside & Lynam, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The traditional quantitative genetic model is based on the notion that the observed variance in a trait is a linear function of genetic (G), shared (C), and non-shared (E) environmental variances.

    “The traditional quantitative genetic model is based on the notion that the observed variance in a trait is a linear function of genetic (G), shared (C), and non-shared (E) environmental variances.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Neale & Cardon, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The classical twin design is recognized as one of the most effective study designs for estimating the relative contribution of genes and environmental influences to human traits.

    “The classical twin design compares the similarity of MZ twins to that of DZ twins and is recognized to be one of the most effective study designs for estimating the relative contribution of genes and environmental influences to human traits (Evans, Gillespie & Martin, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evans, Gillespie & Martin, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Genes may modulate behaviors that involve impulse control, which can lead to manifestations such as conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, ADHD and alcoholism.

    “Genes may therefore modulate behaviors that involve impulse control, which can lead to manifestations such as conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, ADHD and alcoholism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
16 of 16

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Environmentally caused similarity is roughly the same for monozygotic and dizygotic twins (the equal environment assumption).

    “However, it has to be assumed that environmentally caused similarity is roughly the same for both types of twins.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Mating in the parent generation is random.

    “The twin design also assumes random mating in the parent generation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Adoptive children are randomly placed into homes.

    “One important assumption in the adoption design is random placement. It is generally assumed that adoptive children are randomly placed into homes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no gold standard for defining impulsivity or impulsive traits.

    “In addition, there is no gold standard for defining impulsivity or impulsive traits, which further accentuates the complexity of synthesizing the quantitative results obtained on this construct.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no comprehensive review of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity.

    “However, there is yet to exist a comprehensive review of genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity and how these vary across the different facets (or dimensions) and definitions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Impulsivity has not been consistently examined across phenotypic or behavioral genetic studies.

    “Even with impulsivity’s widespread significance in both normal varying personality, as well as pathological behaviors, it has not been consistently examined across phenotypic or behavioral genetic studies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heritability is a group statistic and therefore has poor predictive value on any individual case.

    “However, heritability is a group statistic. Therefore, the precise extent to which a trait is genetically influenced (or if a trait is measurably heritable) usually has poor predictive value on any individual case.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many traits may be strongly genetically influenced in particular families, but demonstrate nearly zero heritability in a population sample.

    “Many traits may be strongly genetically influenced in particular families, but demonstrate nearly zero heritability in a population sample.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High heritability in traits in no way implies that environmental intervention will be futile in modifying the trait.

    “High heritability in traits in no way implies that environmental intervention will be futile in modifying the trait.”
9 of 9

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In humans, self-control has been linked to health, economic, social, and academic achievement, and is known to be heritable.

    “In humans, self-control has been linked to health, economic, social, and academic achievement, and is known to be heritable (170-172).”

    From The evolution of self-control. (2014) · cites this paper as [172]

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (4, N=27,147) = 0.78, p = .95

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .95 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .941. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .941

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(4) = 0.78reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .941

    “χ2 (4, N=27,147) = 0.78, p = .95”

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 53.11reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (4, N= 18,259) = 53.11, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(12) = 176.4reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (12, N=27,147) = 176.4, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(8) = 174.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (8, N= 25,356) = 174.20, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 254.81reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (4, N= 18,259) = 254.81, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 11.44reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .022

    “χ2 (4, N= 13,841) = 11.44, p = .02”

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 4.28reported p = .37 · recomputed p = .369

    “χ2 (4, N=27,147) = 4.28, p = .37”

7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Publication date is described as both significant and non-significant

    Minor

    The Results report no significant difference by publication date, but the Discussion says publication year accounted for significant differences.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Galdstone, 2004, Behavioural inhibition: Measurement and assessment of aetiology outcome in adults. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B:, The Sciences and Engineering, 65, 3158
  2. Goldman, D., & Fishbein, D. H. (2000). Genetic bases for impulsive and antisocial behaviors - can their course be altered? In D. H. Fishbein (Ed.), The science, treatment, and prevention of antisocial behaviors: Application to the criminal justice system ( pp. 9–1 to 9–18). Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute, Inc.

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Related

Authors
Bezdjian, S., Baker, L. A., & Tuvblad, C.
Affiliations
University of Southern California (US)
Corresponding author
Bezdjian, Serena
ORCID
Venue
Clinical Psychology Review
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2011-11
Volume
31
Issue
7
Pages
1209-1223
ISSN
0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.005
PMC
PMC3176916
OpenAlex
W2050332561
Semantic Scholar
62c7ad99b6b29804ebe3ed50cd8057a6022691ba
Cited by
158
References
189
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 7
FWCI
1.16
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH068953, R01MH058354)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (T32DA007313)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords
impulsivity, heritability, genetic factors, environmental influences, nonshared environment, shared environment, additive genetic effects, non-additive genetic effects, developmental differences, sex differences, twin studies, adoption studies, family studies
MeSH terms
Adoption, Family, Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Social Environment, Twins, Twin Studies as Topic

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