The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self-objectification and disordered eating.

“The awareness of the connection between body sensations and emotional states means strong skills in mindful observation (FFMQ-OBS), valuing the importance of listening to body sensations (BRQ-LSTN) and, as expected, a lack of difficulties in emotional awareness and clarity as measured by the DERS AWR and CLR scales.”

“Importantly, Daubenmier (2005) assessed both awareness of and responsiveness to bodily messages and found that only responsiveness to bodily messages mediated the positive association between self-objectification and eating disorder symptoms.”

“[25] In addition to the Body Responsiveness Scale (BRS)[26] and the Scale of Body Connection (SBC),[27] the MAIA is— despite its shortcomings—currently still the most widely used self-report measure of interoceptive bodily awareness.”

“A variety of therapeutic approaches in common use throughout the world claim to enhance body awareness [72] including yoga [23,73], TaiChi, massage [74–76], Body-Oriented Psychotherapy [74], mindfulness based therapies/meditation [41], Feldenkrais [77], Alexander Method [78], Breath Therapy [79], and even mental train…”

“A variety of therapeutic approaches often categorized as mind-body approaches claim to enhance body awareness [1] including yoga [2,3], TaiChi, Body-Oriented Psychotherapy [4], mindfulness based therapies/meditation [5], Feldenkrais [6], Alexander Method [7], Breath Therapy [8], and even massage [4,9,10] and mental tr…”

“…levels of self-objectification (e.g., Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008; Strelan, Mehaffey, & Tiggemann, 2003), as is engaging in physical activity that emphasises body functionality (Daubenmier, 2005; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006; Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008; Tiggemann, Coutts, & Clark, 2014).”

“Similarly, Noticing aspects of IA have been shown to be increased in yoga practitioners (Rani and Rao, 1994; Daubenmier, 2005; Impett et al., 2006).”

“, reverse coded item: “I suppress my bodily feelings and sensations”) [72].”

“In particular, links have been demonstrated between trait self-objectification or self-surveillance with body shame (Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2009; McKinley, 1998; McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Moradi, Dirks, & Matteson, 2005; Muehlenkamp & SarisBaglama, 2002; Muehlenkamp, Swanson, & Brausch, 2005; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998;…”

“We used the Body Responsiveness Questionnaire to measure the importance of interoceptive awareness and perceived disconnection between psychological and physical states [21].”

“Results of this study replicate previous research suggesting that mind-body practices such as yoga may be powerful tools to decrease self-objectification among women and increase embodiment and well-being ( Daubenmier, 2005; Kirkwood et al., 2005; Pilkington et al., 2005).”

“…N/A Caucasian N/A N/A USA College OBCS-BS AN Journal .64 Cottingham, 2008 161 Female 19.83 Caucasian N/A N/A USA College SOQ Global Dissertation .46 Daubenmier, 2005 Study 1 139 Female 37.16 Caucasian N/A N/A USA Community SOQ Global Journal .40 Study 2 133 Female 20.46 Asian N/A 22.1 USA…”

“daubenmier@ucsf.edu (J. Daubenmier). Appetite 74 (2014) 92–100”

“Second, the 7-item Body Responsiveness Questionnaire (BRQ) assesses the tendency to integrate body sensations into conscious awareness to guide decision making and behavior and not suppress or react impulsively to them (Daubenmier, 2005).”

“As examples, such studies could include measures of body functionality (see Abbott & Barber, 2010; Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2011; Avalos & Tylka, 2006), body attunement and responsiveness (Daubenmier, 2005), and broad conceptualization of beauty (Tylka & Iannantuono, 2016).”

“…yoga is related to lower self-objectification, less body dissatisfaction, reduced body weight and shape concern, and reduced eating disorder symptomatology (Carei, Fyfe-Johnson, Breuner, & Brown, 2010; Daubenmier, 2005; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006; McIver, O’Halloran, & McGartland, 2009).”

“For example, some studies with adult women have suggested that those who regularly participate in yoga exhibit lower levels of self-objectification (Daubenmier, 2005; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006; Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008), whereas adult former ballet dancers (Tiggemann & Slater, 2001) and women who exercis…”

“For example, women who self-objectify are more likely to show signs of eating pathology (Daubenmier 2005; Hurt et al. 2007; Moradi et al. 2005; Muehlenkamp and Saris-Baglama 2002; Noll and Fredrickson 1998; Tylka and Hill 2004), depression, (Grabe and Jackson 2009; Hurt et al. 2007; Muehlenkamp and…”

“Other approaches aim to increase body awareness (e.g., Craighead, 2006; Daubenmier, 2005; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006).”

“tification of the triggered emotional response [30].”

“Body responsiveness, or the extent of a person’s responsiveness to bodily sensations, as differentiated from sensitivity to bodily sensations regardless of response was measured using an unvalidated scale (Daubenmier, 2005).”

“51,52 53–56 Thus, the practice of yoga may also improve the chances of successful smoking cessation.”

“The German version of the BRS is a 6-item instrument measuring responsiveness to bodily sensations on two scales for Trust in Bodily Sensations and Perceived Connection between Mental and Physical Processes using 7-point Likert scales [34, 35] (translated with permission by the author).”

“Likewise, Daubenmier (2005) found that women who attended yoga-based fitness classes showed lower levels of self-objectification compared to women who participated in aerobics classes and to women who did not exercise.”

“Additionally, these variables have consistently been found to relate to eating pathology, such that the more an individual endorses these self-objectification variables, the more vulnerable that individual is to experiencing eating problems ( Daubenmier 2005; Moradi et al. 2005; Muehlenkamp and Saris-Baglama 2002; Tig…”

“, with exceptions noted—has documented the negative psychological and experiential consequences of viewing one’s body as an object, more recent studies have begun to explore positive (and non-objectified) dimensions of body image, including body responsiveness (Daubenmier 2005), body appreciation (Avalos et al.”

“The underlying tenets of yoga suggest that the practice may have benefits in terms of body image (Boudette, 2006; Cook-Cottone & Douglass, 2017; Daubenmier, 2005; Dittmann & Freedman, 2009; Douglass, 2009; Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016; Mehling et al., 2011; Body Image.”

“…regular yoga practice is associated with greater body awareness, responsiveness, satisfaction (Daubenmier, 2005), appreciation, embodiment (Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016), and reduced self-objectification (Daubenmier, 2005; Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016) relative to aerobic or non-activity comparison groups.”

“Cognitive appraisal could include fear avoidance [16], improvements in self-efficacy [17, 18], and improvements in body awareness [19, 20].”

“, 2005), and others showed its adaptivity (Daubenmier, 2005; Dittmann & Freedman, 2009; Gustafsson et al., 2010; Ouwens et al., 2009; Ross et al., 2009).”

“19,31 Yoga, but not conventional exercise, has been shown to increase individuals’ awareness and responsiveness to bodily cues, 32 with such awareness being seen as an important factor in neck pain relief due to yoga.”

“Evidence from both cross-sectional and intervention studies consistently supports the link between yoga and lower selfobjectification and more adaptive outcomes, including positive body image and more internalized motivation, in women and men (Carei, Fyfe-Johnson, Breuner, & Brown, 2010; Daubenmier, 2005; Dittman & Fr…”

“Given that BMI has been found to be related to objectification variables and negative eating attitudes (e.g., Calogero, 2004; Daubenmier, 2005; Moradi et al., 2005), we controlled for BMI in our analyses.”

“This preliminary finding in adolescents mirrors studies with adults, which have found that increased body awareness leads to a sense of mastery and can impact self-regulatory skills [34, 35].”

“Finally, they scored considerably lower on enjoyment of sexualization than Liss et al.’s (2011) sample of United States college women (M=3.82).”

“…the present moment, enhanced body awareness, and promotion of self-compassion, suggest that yoga could be helpful in promoting greater body satisfaction (Cook-Cottone, 2016; Daubenmier, 2005; Dittmann & Freedman, 2009; Douglass, 2011; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006; Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016).”

“Given the cultural tendency to objectify women (e.g., Daubenmier, 2005; Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998), it is not difficult to imagine this happening; however, a sex difference on the SSES appearance subscale has not been documented in previous studies.”

“The relationship between self-objectification and negative eating attitudes has been replicated in a number of other studies (Daubenmier, 2005; Moradi et al., 2005; Muehlenkamp & Saris-Baglama, 2002; Tiggemann & Kuring, 2004; Tylka & Hill, 2004).”

“…also teaches body responsiveness, whereby practitioners are encouraged to listen to and appreciate their bodily functions and sensations, rather than trying to change their body or push its physical limits (Cox & Tylka, 2020; Cox et al., 2017; Daubenmier, 2005; Piran & Neumark-Sztainer, 2020).”

“This is a different issue from messages that encourage women to lead more active lifestyles, as there is a strong research base for the benefits of exercise on body image (Hausenblas and Fallon, 2006) and emerging research on the benefits of practices such as yoga in reducing self-objectification (Daubenmier, 2005).”

“The intervention program was developed by extracting guided meditation practices that help in realizing stomach fullness and satisfaction, food cravings and triggers from Mindfulness‐Based Eating Awareness Training (MB‐EAT),[75] mindful yoga stretches, sitting meditations from Mindfulness‐Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)…”

“This pattern of results is consistent with another study conducted by Daubenmier (2005) in which, amid a series of supportive findings, “yoga practitioners reported greater satisfaction with physical appearance and fewer disordered eating attitudes compared to non-yoga practitioners” (p. 215).”

“Increased body awareness and mindfulness, identified in other yoga intervention studies, did not appear to play a role in this population [75,76].”

“In particular, links have been demonstrated between self-objectification and body shame (McKinley, 1998; McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Moradi, Dirks & Matteson, 2005; Muehlenkamp & Saris-Baglama, 2002; Muehlenkamp, Swanson & Brausch, 2005; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998; Steer & Tiggemann, 2008; Tiggemann & Kuring, 2004; Tiggemann…”

“Possible benefits of the latter style, often referred to as body awareness (BA), were emphasized (Daubenmier, 2005; Farb et al., 2015; Impett, Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006; Mehling et al., 2009).”

“21,22 These contradictory findings suggest that further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which yoga produces positive mental health outcomes.”

“A number of quantitative studies suggest that the practice of yoga is associated with positive ways of living in the body, with yoga practitioners having higher body satisfaction (Neumark-Sztainer, MacLehose, Watts, Pacanowski, & Eisenberg, 2018) and body responsiveness and awareness (Daubenmier, 2005).”

“…that enhance a mind–body connection such as rhythmic dance, yoga, or athletics, show greater appreciation for the function of their body, have a stronger sense of body and self-competence, and report greater mental health (Blinde, Taub, & Han, 2001; Daubenmier, 2005; Hausenblas & Downs, 2001).”

“For example, the Body Responsiveness Questionnaire [13] and the majority of the subscales of the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) [18] are designed from this perspective.”

“Daubenmier (2005) demonstrated some initial evidence for higher body awareness and responsiveness in yoga practitioners compared to nonpractitioners.”

“…as body dissatsfaction (Daubenmier, 2005; Dittmann & Freedman, 2009; Scime & ook-Cottone, 2008), dysfunctional eating attitudes (Daubenmier, 005), and self-objectification (Daubenmier, 2005; Impett et al., 006; Mahlo & Tiggemann, 2016; Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008) reltive to non-yoga practitioners.”

“Seven of these studies were excluded from further analysis because the authors modified the measure or used different factors based on their own factor analysis of the EAT (see [26,28-30,69-135] for included studies).”

“Participants who misinterpret the ranking instructions on the SOQ and/or OOQ are typically coded as having missing data for this scale and excluded from analyses involving this scale or excluded from analyses altogether (Daubenmier, 2005; Grippo & Hill, 2008; Langdon & Petracca, 2010; Lindner et al., 2012; Myers & Cro…”

“Daubenmier (2005) found that women who practiced yoga reported lower self-objectification, greater body satisfaction, and fewer disordered eating attitudes than did women who practiced aerobics.”

“…suggest that a regular and fairly intensive yoga practice is associated with factors that may protect individuals from eating disorders and disordered eating behaviours, such as greater body awareness and responsiveness (Daubenmier, 2005) and an overall sense of well-being (Impett et al., 2006).”