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Cited by 653Psychosomatic Disorders and Their TreatmentsPsychometric Methodologies and TestingEating Disorders and Behaviors

Body awareness: construct and self-report measures.

Open access
Mehling, Wolf E., Gopisetty, Viranjini, Daubenmier, Jennifer, Price, Cynthia J., Hecht, Frederick M., Stewart, Anita·2009·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0005614PMC PMC2680990
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Abstract

OBJECTIVES: Heightened body awareness can be adaptive and maladaptive. Improving body awareness has been suggested as an approach for treating patients with conditions such as chronic pain, obesity and post-traumatic stress disorder. We assessed the psychometric quality of selected self-report measures and examined their items for underlying definitions of the construct. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, PsychINFO, HaPI, Embase, Digital Dissertations Database. REVIEW METHODS: Abstracts were screened; potentially relevant instruments were obtained and systematically reviewed. Instruments were excluded if they exclusively measured anxiety, covered emotions without related physical sensations, used observer ratings only, or were unobtainable. We restricted our study to the proprioceptive and interoceptive channels of body awareness. The psychometric properties of each scale were rated using a structured evaluation according to the method of McDowell. Following a working definition of the multi-dimensional construct, an inter-disciplinary team systematically examined the items of existing body awareness instruments, identified the dimensions queried and used an iterative qualitative process to refine the dimensions of the construct. RESULTS: From 1,825 abstracts, 39 instruments were screened. 12 were included for psychometric evaluation. Only two were rated as high standard for reliability, four for validity. Four domains of body awareness with 11 sub-domains emerged. Neither a single nor a compilation of several instruments covered all dimensions. Key domains that might potentially differentiate adaptive and maladaptive aspects of body awareness were missing in the reviewed instruments. CONCLUSION: Existing self-report instruments do not address important domains of the construct of body awareness, are unable to discern between adaptive and maladaptive aspects of body awareness, or exhibit other psychometric limitations. Restricting the construct to its proprio- and interoceptive channels, we explore the current understanding of the multi-dimensional construct and suggest next steps for further research.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review assessed self-report instruments for body awareness and found that existing measures have limited psychometric quality and do not cover key dimensions of the construct. The authors propose a four-domain, 11-sub-domain model and conclude that a new multidimensional instrument is needed.

Key findings

  • From 1,825 abstracts, 39 instruments were screened; 12 were included for psychometric evaluation and 27 were excluded.
  • Only two instruments were rated as high standard for reliability and four for validity; the BAQ was strongest with 18 psychometric “stars,” followed by PBCS (15), BVS (15), and SBC (13).
  • Four domains with 11 sub-domains emerged: Perceived Body Sensations, Attention Quality, Attitude, and Mind-Body Integration. Neither a single instrument nor a compilation of several covered all dimensions, and key domains potentially differentiating adaptive from maladaptive body awareness were missing.
  • The BAQ was uni-dimensional and explicitly excluded attention to pain sensations and emotions; the 5-item PBCS mostly measured one sub-domain, sensations of distress, worry and tension; only one body awareness instrument (SBA) included a single item for mode of attention (mindfulness versus labeling thought).

Methods

  • Systematic search of PubMed, PsycInfo, EMBASE, HAPI, and Digital Dissertations in April–May 2007; abstracts were screened, and instruments were excluded if they exclusively measured anxiety, covered emotions without related physical sensations, used observer ratings only, or were unobtainable.
  • Two reviewers independently compared psychometric characteristics using a structured evaluation adapted from McDowell, reaching consensus with a third reviewer when needed.
  • Four reviewers iteratively reviewed the anonymized item pool from included instruments plus selected mindfulness items, starting with 7 domains and refining them into 4 domains and 11 sub-domains.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no gold standard exists for criterion validity in body awareness, that none of the self-report measures had been validated against an objective measure, and that construct validation is incremental.
  • The paper states that item wording often did not clearly discriminate between dimensions, that key dimensions were missing in most instruments, and that no single or compiled instrument satisfactorily covered all dimensions; the BPQ also lacked obtainable supporting publication by its author.
  • Evident from the text: the review was restricted to proprioceptive and interoceptive channels and excluded exteroceptive/body image aspects, and the search was conducted in 2007, so later instruments are not included.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0005614

Cites

178 of 178 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Key domains that might potentially differentiate adaptive and maladaptive aspects of body awareness were missing in the reviewed instruments.

    “Key domains that might potentially differentiate adaptive and maladaptive aspects of body awareness were missing in the reviewed instruments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Neither a single nor a compilation of several instruments covered all dimensions of body awareness.

    “Neither a single nor a compilation of several instruments covered all dimensions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only two instruments were rated as high standard for reliability.

    “Only two were rated as high standard for reliability, four for validity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Four instruments were rated as high standard for validity.

    “Only two were rated as high standard for reliability, four for validity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Four domains of body awareness with 11 sub-domains emerged.

    “Four domains of body awareness with 11 sub-domains emerged.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 29
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    From 1,825 abstracts, 39 instruments were screened.

    “From 1,825 abstracts, 39 instruments were screened.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    12 instruments were included for psychometric evaluation.

    “12 were included for psychometric evaluation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The BAQ is one-dimensional and explicitly excludes attention to pain sensations and emotions.

    “Regarding their dimensions, the BAQ [142] is one-dimensional and explicitly excludes attention to pain sensations and emotions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142] Shields SA Mallory MA Simon A 1989 The Body Awareness Questionnaire: reliability and validity. J Pers Assess 53 802 815

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The systematic search yielded a total of 1,825 abstracts and identified 39 instruments related to body awareness.

    “The systematic search yielded a total of 1,825 abstracts and identified 39 instruments related to body awareness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    27 instruments were excluded from the psychometric review.

    “27 instruments were excluded (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Two instruments (BAQ, PBCS) fulfilled a high standard for reliability and four (BAQ, BVS, PBCS, SBC) for validity.

    “Two instruments (BAQ, PBCS) fulfilled a high standard for reliability and four (BAQ, BVS, PBCS, SBC) for validity (characterized with three or more “*”s in Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Mindfulness instruments MAAS, KIMS, and FFMQ include items regarding awareness specifically of internal body sensations but do not provide subscales for body awareness.

    “Instruments specifically designed to measure mindfulness, such as the uni-dimensional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) [126], the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) [117], and its successor the Five-Facet Mindfulness Scale (FFMS) [70], include items regarding awareness specifically of internal body sensations but do not provide subscales for body awareness (Table 7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [126] Brown KW Ryan RM 2003 The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol 84 822 848 12703651

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [117] Baer RA Smith GT Allen KB 2004 Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment 11 191 206 15358875

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [70] Baer RA Smith GT Hopkins J Krietemeyer J Toney L 2006 Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment 13 27 45 16443717

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Summing the psychometric stars, the BAQ (18) is the strongest instrument, followed by PBCS (15), BVS (15), and SBC (13).

    “If we add up the psychometric “stars” each instrument qualified for (including one for more than a few studies it was used in and one for clinical use, thus allowing for a maximum of 23 “stars”) we find the BAQ (18) as the strongest instrument, followed by PBCS (15), BVS (15), and SBC (13).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Perceived body sensations is the primary sensory, physiological aspect of body awareness with early, mostly pre-conscious appraisal or affective coloring, and is subdivided into four sub-domains: distress/worry/pain/tension, wellbeing, neutral/ambiguous sensations, and bothersomeness of symptoms.

    “Perceived body sensations or the ability to note changes in body processes, to identify inner sensations (e.g. a tight muscle, fatigue, warmth, pain) and to discern subtle bodily cues indicating varying functional states of the body or its organs and the emotional/physiological state. This dimension is the primary sensory, physiological aspect of body awareness with its early, mostly pre-conscious”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    KIMS and FFMQ contain subscales labeled "Observing"; however, these subscales include items for the awareness of thoughts and external stimuli that disqualified them from the psychometric review.

    “KIMS and FFMQ contain subscales labeled “Observing”; however, these subscales include items for the awareness of thoughts and external stimuli (sights, sounds, smells) that disqualified them from our psychometric review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Five instruments were administered in patients but only one in patients with pain (PBCS).

    “Five instruments were administered in patients but only one in patients with pain (PBCS).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The MAAS includes a single item (item 5) that is missing from the factor analysis by Baer without explanation, might load on the 'observing' facet of mindfulness, and was included in the conceptual review.

    “The MAAS includes a single item (item 5), which is missing from the factor analysis by Baer [70] without explanation, might load on the ‘observing’ facet of mindfulness and was included in the conceptual review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Baer RA Smith GT Hopkins J Krietemeyer J Toney L 2006 Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment 13 27 45 16443717

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Multiple reformulations of the dimensions and sub-domains aided in simplifying the ordering of items but could not overcome the limitation of item non-discrimination.

    “Multiple reformulations of the dimensions and sub-domains aided in simplifying the ordering of items but could not overcome this limitation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Item 22 in the 'describe' facet addresses body sensations; therefore, 7 items qualified for the conceptual review.

    “Also, item 22 in the ‘describe’ facet addresses body sensations. Therefore, 7 items qualified for our conceptual review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Four inter-related dimensions emerged from the conceptual review: Perceived Body Sensations, Attention Quality, Attitude, and Mind-Body Integration.

    “The following four inter-related dimensions emerged (Table 5):”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In most instruments, item wording does not clearly discriminate between dimensions, reflecting a lack of systematic measurement development.

    “Second, according to the dimensions and sub-domains emerging from our qualitative review, in most instruments, item wording does not clearly discriminate between dimensions reflecting a lack of systematic measurement development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The SSAS includes two items for 'neutral sensations' (1C), and three for 'bothersomeness of symptoms' (1D).

    “the SSAS includes two items for ‘neutral sensations’ (1C), and three for ‘bothersomeness of symptoms’ (1D).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Numerous instruments were exclusively developed to measure anxiety or assess body image.

    “Numerous instruments were exclusively developed to measure anxiety or assess body image.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Most current definitions of body awareness appear to be dominated by the concern that heightened body awareness necessarily leads to somatosensory amplification, worsens symptoms of anxiety and hypochondriasis, and is maladaptive for clinical outcomes such as pain.

    “Third, most current definitions of body awareness appear to be dominated by the concern that heightened body awareness necessarily leads to somatosensory amplification, worsens symptoms of anxiety and hypochondriasis, and is maladaptive for clinical outcomes, such as pain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The broadest coverage of the dimensions and the total of eleven sub-domains are provided by BIS with 10, SBC with 7, and BAM with 5 sub-domains.

    “The broadest coverage of our dimensions and the total of eleven sub-domains are provided by BIS with 10, SBC with 7, and BAM with 5 sub-domains, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Among uni-dimensional definitions of body awareness, the dimensions queried by the items vary considerably across instruments and represent different aspects of the construct.

    “However, among uni-dimensional definitions of body awareness, the dimensions queried by the items vary considerably across instruments and represent different aspects of the construct.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Body awareness is considered by most authors to be a single, mostly undifferentiated construct.

    “Body awareness is considered by most authors to be a single, mostly undifferentiated construct.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Only two reviewed instruments, BAQ and PBCS, have strong psychometric properties and were used in more than a few studies.

    “Only two instruments have strong psychometric properties and were used in more than a few studies: BAQ and PBCS.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “Several instruments demonstrate strong psychometric properties (BAQ, PBCS).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [142] Shields SA Mallory MA Simon A 1989 The Body Awareness Questionnaire: reliability and validity. J Pers Assess 53 802 815

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [135] Miller LC Murphy R Buss AH 1981 Consciousness of body: Private and public. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 41 397 406

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning

    The iterative process continuously refined the operational definition into a conceptual model with explicit domains and sub-domains.

    “This iterative process continuously refined our operational definition into a conceptual model with explicit domains and sub-domains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    To date, it remains unclear whether any mind-body approach, meditation or others, enhances forms of body awareness other than heartbeat detection, whether increases in body awareness translate to all of its aspects, or whether these approaches enhance body awareness at all.

    “To this date, it remains unclear whether any mind-body approach, meditation or others enhance forms of body awareness other than heartbeat detection, or whether increases in body awareness translate to all of its aspects, or whether these approaches enhance body awareness at all.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Sensitivity is increased in patients with irritable bowel syndrome in conjunction with hypervigilance.

    “Sensitivity is increased in patients with irritable bowel syndrome in conjunction with hypervigilance, and a systematic desensitization was associated with improved symptoms [156], [157].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [156] Drossman DA Ringel Y Vogt BA Leserman J Lin W 2003 Alterations of brain activity associated with resolution of emotional distress and pain in a case of severe irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 124 754 761 12612913

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [157] Naliboff BD Berman S Suyenobu B Labus JS Chang L 2006 Longitudinal change in perceptual and brain activation response to visceral stimuli in irritable bowel syndrome patients. Gastroenterology 131 352 365 16890589

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Currently no gold standard is available for objective measures of trans-modal interoception.

    “In addition to further studies of single-modality of interoception, objective measures of trans-modal interoception might be developed in the near future, for which currently no gold standard is available.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Gastrointestinal distension has been used to study gastrointestinal interoceptive sensitivity.

    “Gastrointestinal (GI) distension has been used to study gastrointestinal interoceptive sensitivity [154], [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [154] Holzl R Erasmus LP Moltner A 1996 Detection, discrimination and sensation of visceral stimuli. Biol Psychol 42 199 214 8770379

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [155] Stephan E Pardo JV Faris PL Hartman BK Kim SW 2003 Functional neuroimaging of gastric distention. J Gastrointest Surg 7 740 749 13129550

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Heightened body awareness can be adaptive and maladaptive.

    “Heightened body awareness can be adaptive and maladaptive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Watkins E Teasdale JD 2004 Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. J Affect Disord 82 1 8 15465571

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Original items were independently reviewed by two reviewers (WM and VG).

    “the original items were independently reviewed by two reviewers (WM and VG).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Awareness of physical sensations associated with emotions is a key element for affect regulation and for the sense of self.

    “Awareness of physical sensations associated with emotions is a key element for affect regulation and for the sense of self [34], [38]–[40].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [34] Bechara A Naqvi N 2004 Listening to your heart: interoceptive awareness as a gateway to feeling. Nat Neurosci 7 102 103 14747831

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38]–[40]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-awareness or awareness of symptoms in depressed patients can be adaptive or maladaptive according to distinct and incompatible modes of mind; ruminative self-focus appears maladaptive whereas focusing attention directly on immediately experienced feelings appears adaptive.

    “self-awareness or the awareness of symptoms in depressed patients can be adaptive or maladaptive according to “distinct and incompatible modes of mind”; a ruminative self-focus appears to be maladaptive whereas focusing attention directly on immediately experienced feelings appears to be adaptive [43].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Watkins E Teasdale JD 2004 Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. J Affect Disord 82 1 8 15465571

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Construct validation can only be established incrementally and is a continuing process aiding in understanding and revision of the construct.

    “Construct validation can only be established incrementally and is a continuing process aiding in our understanding and revision of the construct [124].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] Sechrest L 2005 Validity of measures is no simple matter. Health Serv Res 40 1584 1604 16178997 PMC1361215

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Psychometric characteristics were independently compared by two reviewers (VG, WM) until consensus was reached in all categories.

    “two reviewers (VG, WM) independently compared the psychometric characteristics of the reviewed measurements until consensus was reached in all categories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    When initial consensus about an instrument could not be reached, the opinion of a third reviewer (JD) was sought and discussed until unanimous agreement was reached.

    “When initial consensus about an instrument could not be reached, the opinion of a third reviewer (JD) was sought and discussed until unanimous agreement was reached.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The dominant view in medical and behavioral science considers heightened awareness of somatic information as potentially distressing and maladaptive.

    “the dominant view in medical and behavioral science considers heightened awareness of somatic information as potentially distressing and maladaptive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Cioffi D 1991 Beyond attentional strategies: cognitive-perceptual model of somatic interpretation. Psychol Bull 109 25 41 2006227

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Body awareness is a complex, multi-dimensional construct in need of more nuanced conceptualization.

    “These findings seem to contradict the traditional understanding of body awareness and suggest that body awareness is a complex, multi-dimensional construct in need of more nuanced conceptualization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Abstracts were screened for relevance by two reviewers (WM and VG).

    “the abstracts of all identified publications were screened for relevance by two reviewers (WM and VG).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The psychometric properties were rated using a structured evaluation according to the method of McDowell.

    “The psychometric properties of each scale were rated using a structured evaluation according to the method of McDowell.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McDowell

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mindfulness encompasses more than awareness of inner sensations by including awareness of cognitive thoughts of any kind.

    “mindfulness encompasses more than awareness of inner sensations by including awareness of cognitive thoughts of any kind, which are not excluded from the body awareness construct [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Kerr C 2002 Translating “mind-in-body”: two models of patient experience underlying a randomized controlled trial of qigong. Cult Med Psychiatry 26 419 447 12572768

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Few attempts have been made to measure changes in body awareness associated with interventions and to link intervention-related changes in body awareness to clinical outcomes.

    “few attempts have been made to measure changes in body awareness associated with such interventions [108], and to link intervention-related changes in body awareness to clinical outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108] Villien F Yu M Barthelemy P Jammes Y 2005 Training to yoga respiration selectively increases respiratory sensation in healthy man. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 146 85 96 15733782

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Interoceptive accuracy might have trait and state aspects that co-vary across modalities.

    “There is very preliminary experimental support for the notion that interoceptive accuracy might have trait and state aspects that co-vary across modalities [111], [112] reflecting a general sensitivity for visceral processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [111] Zoellner LA Craske MG 1999 Interoceptive accuracy and panic. Behav Res Ther 37 1141 1158 10596462

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [112] Whitehead WE Drescher VM 1980 Perception of gastric contractions and self-control of gastric motility. Psychophysiology 17 552 558 7443922

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Instruments were anonymized before review.

    “all instruments identified in the first step were anonymized”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Body Awareness Rating Scale is an observer-based rating scale exclusively used by specially trained physical therapists in Scandinavian countries, requires extensive training not available, translated or used outside these countries, and had mixed results for inter-examiner reliability.

    “The Body Awareness Rating Scale [127], [128] is an observer-based rating scale that judges the functionality of various visually observed movement patterns; it is exclusively used by specially trained physical therapists in Scandinavian countries, requires extensive training which, to our knowledge, is not available, translated or used outside these countries and had mixed results for inter-examin”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [127] Friis S Skatteboe UB Hope MK Vaglum P 1989 Body awareness group therapy for patients with personality disorders. 2. Evaluation of the Body Awareness Rating Scale. Psychother Psychosom 51 18 24 2602528

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [128] Roxendal G 1992 BAS-skalan med BAS halsa [The Body Awareness Scale and the Body Awareness Scale-Health] Lund (in Swedish) Studentlitteratur

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [129]–[131]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    No limits were placed on language, country or time of publication.

    “No limits were placed on language, country or time of publication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The search was conducted in 5 electronic databases.

    “we conducted a systematic search of 5 electronic databases to identify articles reporting the use of body awareness-related instruments: PubMed, PsycInfo, EMBASE, HAPI, and the Digital Dissertations Database.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The quality or mode of attention (mindfulness versus labeling thought) seems to make all the difference between body awareness being adaptive or maladaptive.

    “Intriguingly, only one instrument dedicated to body awareness (SBA) included a single item to measure the quality or mode of attention, mindfulness versus labeling thought (2C), that seems to make all the difference between body awareness being adaptive or maladaptive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These scales are limited by their focus on patients with specific diagnoses or by a lack of more systematic and comprehensive multidimensional construct development.

    “Thus these scales are limited by their focus on patients with specific diagnoses or lack a more systematic and comprehensive, multidimensional construct development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Benefits from mind-body interventions may be derived from an uncoupling of a narrative self-focus from an experiential awareness focus.

    “It has been suggested that benefits from mind-body interventions may be derived from an uncoupling of a ‘narrative self-focus’ from an ‘experiential awareness focus’ [109];”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [109] Farb NA Segal ZV Mayberg H Bean J McKeon D 2007 Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2 313 322 18985137 PMC2566754

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is a great need to develop an instrument that overcomes these limitations.

    “There is a great need to develop an instrument that overcomes these limitations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Heart beat has the advantage of being less susceptible to voluntary manipulations compared with respiration.

    “Although heart beat has the advantage of being less susceptible to voluntary manipulations when compared i.e. with respiration, none of the body awareness training approaches we reviewed focus on heart rate perceptions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the immediate future, broader clinical research in the field of body awareness will have to rely on self-report.

    “Similar to the research of pain, in the immediate future broader clinical research in the field of body awareness will also have to rely on self report.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A 'gold standard' for assessing criterion validity in measures of body awareness does not exist.

    “A “gold standard” for assessing criterion validity in measures of body awareness does not exist.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The four domains and 11 sub-domains identified by the interdisciplinary team constitute the complete or correct set of dimensions of body awareness.

    “Following a working definition of the multi-dimensional construct, an inter-disciplinary team systematically examined the items of existing body awareness instruments, identified the dimensions queried and used an iterative qualitative process to refine the dimensions of the construct.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Therapeutic approaches claiming to enhance body awareness frequently suffer from a lack of theory and methodologically weak research.

    “These approaches are often categorized as mind-body approaches and/or manual therapies [83] and enjoy a growing popularity in the Western world [59] but frequently suffer from a lack of theory and methodologically weak research behind esoteric formulations and unfounded statements of benefits.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a great need to study practices of interoception and body awareness and their potential clinical benefits.

    “Although there is a great need to study practices of interoception and body awareness and their potential clinical benefits, few attempts have been made to measure changes in body awareness associated with such interventions [108]”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Aspects of mindfulness constitute a key element of body awareness.

    “as they have been widely used in the mindfulness literature, and aspects of mindfulness appear to constitute a key element of body awareness.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Mindfulness meditation increases body awareness in practiced meditators, as shown by self-administered questionnaires.

    “One of the consequences of attentional focus in mindfulness meditation is the increase in body awareness by practitioners attending to internal perceptions, developing their understanding of subtle sensations and perceptions of their body [34, 35], with studies based on self-administered questionnaires showing a significant increase in body awareness in practiced meditators (see [36]).”

    From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [36]

    The Discussion (page unavailable) says it remains unclear whether meditation enhances body awareness at all; it also reports that heartbeat-detection tests could not distinguish experienced meditators from matched controls. The paper discusses limitations of self-report measures but does not report questionnaire studies showing a significant increase in practiced meditators. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Fasciae play an important role in the overall sense of inner body awareness that involves brain areas linked to emotions, such as the insula and cingulate cortices.

    “Although we do not have a detailed map of the somatosensory areas of the brain that process sensations from fasciae, they play an important role in the overall sense of “inner body awareness” that involves brain areas linked to emotions, such as the insula and cingulate cortices [17].”

    From Fascia Mobility, Proprioception, and Myofascial Pain. (2021) · cites this paper as [17]

    The Introduction links inner-body awareness and emotion-related physical sensations to the right anterior insula and cingulate cortices. It does not identify fasciae as an important source of that awareness; a search for fasciae and fascial connective tissue found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The body awareness literature suggests that heightened awareness of bodily sensations often serves as markers for a variety of mental disorders including anxiety, panic disorder, depression, eating disorders, somatization, and others.

    “For instance, the BA literature, which is slanted toward a clinical population, suggests that heightened awareness of bodily sensations often serves as markers for a variety of mental disorders including anxiety, panic disorder, depression, eating disorders, somatization, and others (Cioffi, 1991; Pollatos et al., 2008, 2009; Mehling et al., 2009; Herbert and Pollatos, 2014; Mallorquí-Bagué et al.”

    From Mindfulness, Interoception, and the Body: A Contemporary Perspective (2019) · cites this paper as Mehling et al., 2009

    The Introduction (page not provided) says that perceived distressing bodily sensations have been used as markers for anxiety and somatization, and describes an exaggerated focus on symptoms in studies of panic disorder. The Results section on the Body Vigilance Scale also reports associations with a history of panic and with depression symptoms. The paper does not establish heightened bodily awareness as a marker for eating disorders, and distinguishes maladaptive hypervigilance from other forms of body awareness. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Terms such as body awareness or somatic awareness are often used interchangeably with interoception or interoceptive awareness.

    “One problem as Mehling et al. (2009) point out is that terms, such as body awareness or somatic awareness, are often used interchangeably with interoception or interoceptive awareness.”

    From Mindfulness, Interoception, and the Body: A Contemporary Perspective (2019) · cites this paper as Mehling et al., 2009

    The Introduction says definitions of body awareness are rarely provided and clarifies its relationship to interoception, supporting the citing sentence’s concern about terminology. It does not say that body awareness or somatic awareness are often used interchangeably with interoception or interoceptive awareness; instead, it distinguishes interoception from conscious awareness of bodily sensations. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Dispositional mindfulness may promote more adaptive interoceptive attentional styles and enhance or illuminate discriminative capacities related to various bodily sensations.

    “Dispositional mindfulness may promote more adaptive interoceptive attentional styles and enhance or illuminate discriminative capacities related to various bodily sensations (Mehling et al., 2009; Hanley et al., 2017).”

    From Mindfulness, Interoception, and the Body: A Contemporary Perspective (2019) · cites this paper as Mehling et al., 2009

    The Introduction (page unavailable) says mindfulness skills are expected to shape body awareness and describes attention to the precise details of bodily sensations as adaptive. The Results section likewise contrasts mindful sensory awareness with rumination. The paper does not establish that dispositional mindfulness enhances discrimination of various bodily sensations; the Discussion (page unavailable) questions whether these approaches enhance body awareness at all. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • SSAS body-awareness item count differs between tables

    Minor

    Table 2 lists three body awareness-related SSAS items, while Table 7 lists six for the same instrument.

  • Table 7 gives the wrong total number of sub-domains

    Minor

    Table 7 labels its coverage counts as being out of 10 sub-domains, whereas Table 6 and the paper's stated construct use 11.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. [83]NIH-NCCAM 2005 Conference on the Biology of Manual Therapies June 9–10, 2005 Natcher Conference Center National Institutes of Health Bethesda, Maryland. http://nccamnihgov/news/upcomingmeetings/manual-conferencehtm
  2. [109]Farb NA Segal ZV Mayberg H Bean J McKeon D 2007 Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2 313 322 18985137 PMC2566754
  3. [143]Snell WJ Johnson G 1997 The Multidimensional Health Questionnaire. American Journal of Health Behavior 21 33 42
  4. [145]Price CJ Thompson EA 2006 Measuring dimensions of body connection: Body awareness and bodily dissociation. in press: J Altern Complement Med PMC3029599 18047441
  5. [149]Khalsa SS Rudlauf D Damasio A Davidson RJ Lutz A 2007 To feel or not to feel: interoceptive awareness in experienced meditators. poster at Annual Scientific Meeting of American Psychosomatic Society PMC2637372 18503485

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Mehling, W. E., Gopisetty, V., Daubenmier, J., Price, C. J., Hecht, F. M., & Stewart, A.
Affiliations
  • University of California, San Francisco (US)
  • University of Washington (US)
Corresponding author
Mehling, Wolf E.
ORCID
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2009-05-19
Volume
4
Issue
5
Pages
e5614
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0005614
PMC
PMC2680990
OpenAlex
W1989241987
Cited by
653
References
176
Citations by year
2026: 37 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 16
FWCI
5.57
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Mount Zion Health Fund
  • National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (K23AT002298)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Keywords
body awareness, proprioception, interoception, self-report measures, psychometric properties, construct definition, scale reliability and validity, chronic pain, obesity, post-traumatic stress disorder
MeSH terms
Humans, Psychometrics, Self-Assessment

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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