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Cited by 371Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchCritical Race Theory in EducationEarly Childhood Education and Development

Perceived Racial Discrimination and Self-Esteem in African American Youth: Racial Socialization as a Protective Factor

Open access
Harris‐Britt, April, Valrie, Cecelia R., Kurtz‐Costes, Beth, Rowley, Stephanie J.·2007·Journal of Research on Adolescence
DOI 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.xPMC PMC2917995
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Abstract

Racial socialization was examined as a protective factor that might buffer African American youth from the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination. Two types of racial socialization were examined: messages about race pride and preparation for bias. One hundred twenty-eight eighth-grade African American students participated in the study. As anticipated, both types of socialization moderated the relationship between discrimination and self-esteem. The negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was mitigated for youth who reported more messages about race pride and a moderate amount of preparation for bias from their parents. In contrast, low race pride socialization and both high and low preparation for bias were associated with a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x

Cites

27 of 27 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Probing the Interactions · p. 9

    The negative association between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was stronger when preparation for bias was absent than when such socialization was present.

    “The negative relationship between self-esteem and perceptions of discrimination was more pronounced in the absence of preparation for bias as compared to in the presence of such socialization efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
  • Premisecitation
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 2

    Most studies of race pride socialization find that messages about cultural knowledge and pride are associated with higher overall functioning and self-esteem.

    “The majority of studies examining the influence of race pride socialization indicate that messages about cultural knowledge and pride are related to higher overall functioning and self-esteem (Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002; Constantine & Blackmon, 2002; Hughes & Chen, 1999; Stevenson, Reed, Bodison, & Bishop, 1997; however, see Fisher et al., 2000, for null findings).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002 source
    • cites Constantine & Blackmon, 2002 source
    • cites Hughes & Chen, 1999
  • Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION · p. 11

    Parental messages that tell youth they will consistently face prejudice and discrimination because of their race, regardless of their own effort, may be maladaptive.

    “Parental messages that signal to youth that they will consistently and persistently face prejudice and discrimination because of their race (a personal and internal factor), regardless of their own effort, may be maladaptive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
  • Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION · p. 10

    The results suggest that some negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on African American adolescents may be reduced when adolescents have been adequately socialized to handle such experiences.

    “The present results suggest that some of the negative effects associated with perceiving oneself to be the victim of racial discrimination may be mitigated if adolescents have been adequately socialized to deal with such experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
  • Interpretationcitation
    § DISCUSSION · p. 10

    The findings support theories proposing that African American adolescents who lack understanding of racism and their cultural heritage may be less able to cope effectively with racism.

    “Taken together, these results support theories that suggest that African American adolescents who do not understand racism and their unique cultural heritage may be handicapped in terms of their ability to cope effectively with racism (Stevenson et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stevenson et al., 1997 source
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
  • May combine two claims. 11
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 10
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Preparation for Bias, Perceived Discrimination, and Adolescent Self-Esteem · p. 9

    In the regression model for preparation for bias, the interaction between perceived discrimination and the squared preparation for bias term was statistically significant, qualifying the two-way interaction.

    “The two-way interaction between perceived discrimination and preparation for bias was significant, t (92) 5 2.50, p o .05, but was qualified by the significant interaction between perceived discrimination and the squared term for preparation for bias, t (92) 5 3.04, p o .01.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Probing the Interactions · p. 9

    The negative association between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was statistically significant when race pride socialization was at or below one standard deviation below the mean, but it was not significantly different from zero when race pride socialization was at or above the mean.

    “the negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was significant when levels of race pride socialization were at o 1 SD below the mean but was not significantly different from zero when race pride socialization was at or above the mean.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures · p. 5

    The race pride subscale showed acceptable internal consistency in this sample (alpha = .74).

    “Mean scores were calculated for the race pride (eight items; a 5 .74) and preparation for bias (nine items; a 5 .84) subscales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 3

    Fischer and Shaw's study of African American college students found that the negative relationship between perceived racism and overall mental health was significant at low levels of bias preparation but nonsignificant at high levels.

    “Fischer and Shaw's (1999) investigation with African American college students, ages 18-25, found that the negative relationship between perceived racism and overall mental health was significant at low levels (.5 SD below mean) of bias preparation but nonsignificant at high levels (.5 SD above mean) of bias preparation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fischer & Shaw, 1999 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 2

    Some studies have found that parental preparation for bias is positively related to higher academic functioning, self-efficacy, and fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents.

    “Some studies have found that parental preparation for bias is positively related to higher academic functioning, self-efficacy, and fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents (Bowman & Howard, 1985; Hughes & Chen, 1999; Stevenson et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bowman & Howard, 1985 source
    • cites Hughes & Chen, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Stevenson et al., 1997 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION · p. 10

    Race pride messages appeared to act as a direct buffer: perceived discrimination was linked to lower self-esteem among adolescents reporting minimal race pride messages, while those reporting more frequent race pride messages did not appear to be negatively affected.

    “Qualitatively, adolescents' reports of race pride messages appeared to serve as a direct buffer on this relationship, as perceptions of discrimination were associated with lower self-esteem for adolescents who reported minimal exposure to positive messages about their heritage and culture, whereas adolescents who reported more frequent exposure to race pride messages did not seem to be negatively”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures · p. 6

    The self-esteem measure showed strong internal consistency in this sample (alpha = .76).

    “Test-retest reliability and validity have been established in prior research, and internal consistency was strong in the present sample ( a 5 .76).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Perceived Racial Discrimination and SelfEsteem in African American Youth: Racial Socialization as a Protective Factor · p. 1

    Racial discrimination is often regarded as a risk factor for African American youth.

    “Racial discrimination, defined as ''beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation,'' is often viewed as such a risk factor (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999, p. 805).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Perceived Racial Discrimination and SelfEsteem in African American Youth: Racial Socialization as a Protective Factor · p. 2

    A large literature has linked perceived racial discrimination to harmful physiological and psychological outcomes in African American adults.

    “A large body of literature has linked perceived racial discrimination to deleterious physiological and psychological outcomes in African American adults (see Clark et al., 1999, for a review).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Clark et al., 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 3

    Fischer and Shaw's study examined only messages about racism and barriers and did not explore possible effects of cultural pride messages.

    “It is important to note that Fischer and Shaw (1999) only focused on reports of messages related to racism and barriers, without exploring the possible effects of cultural pride messages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fischer & Shaw, 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 3

    Racial socialization may be a stronger moderator of discrimination's impact among adolescents than among young adults because adolescents have greater daily proximity to parents and are at a different developmental stage.

    “Furthermore, racial socialization may be an even stronger moderator of the impact of discrimination among adolescents, as compared with young adults, given the greater daily proximity to their parents and developmental stage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § RACIAL SOCIALIZATION MESSAGES AS A BUFFER TO DISCRIMINATION · p. 2

    Racial socialization has been described as the primary practice African American families and communities use to help children cope with race-related issues such as discrimination.

    “Racial socialization-the implicit, explicit, purposeful, and unintended ways that parents' beliefs and behaviors convey views about race to children-has been cited as the primary practice utilized by African American families and communities to assist children in coping with race-related issues such as discrimination (Hughes, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hughes, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § RESULTS · p. 7

    ANOVA results showed no significant mean differences in perceived discrimination, parental racial socialization, or self-esteem by gender, school, parent education, parental marital status, or household income.

    “Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results revealed no significant mean differences between adolescents' perceptions of discrimination, parental racial socialization practices, or self-esteem as a function of adolescents' gender, school attended, parent education level, parental marital status, or household income.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Suggestions for Future Research · p. 12

    Because data were collected at a single time point, causal relationships and temporal ordering cannot be established.

    “Finally, the data used to test our hypotheses were gathered at a single time point. Consequently, causal relationships and temporal ordering cannot be established.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures · p. 5

    The preparation for bias subscale showed acceptable internal consistency in this sample (alpha = .84).

    “Mean scores were calculated for the race pride (eight items; a 5 .74) and preparation for bias (nine items; a 5 .84) subscales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION · p. 10

    Preparation for bias had a curvilinear influence on the association between perceived discrimination and self-esteem, differing from the buffering pattern for race pride messages.

    “Consistent with our hypotheses, the buffering effects of preparation for bias do not seem to operate in the same manner as racial pride messages, because preparation for bias had a curvilinear influence on the relationship between perceptions of discrimination and self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Suggestions for Future Research · p. 11

    Using adolescent reports for all measures carries a risk that the reports are not veridical, and adolescents' perceptions of discrimination or self-esteem may have influenced their reports of parenting.

    “A risk of using adolescent reports for all measures is that they may not be veridical. In this case, adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and/or their self-esteem may have influenced their reports of parenting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures · p. 5

    The three ADDI subscales were correlated from .53 to .88 in this sample, supporting use of a composite average across items.

    “Bivariate correlations between the three subscales ranged from .53 to .88 ( p 4 .001 ) in our sample; thus, a composite average across items was utilized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION · p. 11

    An overemphasis on bias, such as frequent parental reminders of racial barriers, may lead adolescents to feel helpless and lacking control over their environment, which may in turn lower self-esteem.

    “Thus, an overemphasis on bias-that is, parents' frequent reminders of racial barriers-may lead adolescents to feel helpless and lacking control over their environment and consequently result in lower self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
19 of 19

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.

    “A risk of using adolescent reports for all measures is that they may not be veridical. In this case, adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and/or their self-esteem may have influenced their reports of parenting.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.

    “We elected to use adolescent reports of parental racial socialization rather than parent reports because we believed that adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of race messages were more important than an objective measure of such socialization.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Final-model coefficient tests use inconsistent degrees of freedom

    Minor

    The final race-pride regression has 82 residual degrees of freedom, but its coefficient tests are reported with 92. Coefficient t-tests from that same final regression would use its residual degrees of freedom.

  • Two different standard deviations are reported for age

    Minor

    The participant description gives the age standard deviation as 0.67 years, while Table 1 gives it as 0.63 years.

  • Race-pride model reports an incompatible change F statistic

    Minor

    For the reported Step 2 F(8, 84) of 1.59 and final F(10, 82) of 2.43, the two-predictor change F is approximately 5.16, not 4.29. The three reported F statistics cannot all describe those successive models.

3 of 3

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Authors
Harris‐Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz‐Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J.
Affiliations
University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author
Harris‐Britt, April
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Research on Adolescence
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2007-12
Volume
17
Issue
4
Pages
669-682
ISSN
  • 1050-8392 (ISSN-L)
  • 1532-7795
DOI
10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x
PMC
PMC2917995
OpenAlex
W2141800004
Semantic Scholar
2d03ac58d625720daea57677c6412097c57039f5
Cited by
371
References
26
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 28
FWCI
33.87
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 6 d)
Locations
  • Journal of Research on Adolescence (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords
perceived racial discrimination, self-esteem, racial socialization, African American youth, race pride, preparation for bias, protective factors, moderation

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