The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 17 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Perceived Racial Discrimination and Self-Esteem in African American Youth: Racial Socialization as a Protective Factor
Open accessAbstract
Racial socialization was examined as a protective factor that might buffer African American youth from the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination. Two types of racial socialization were examined: messages about race pride and preparation for bias. One hundred twenty-eight eighth-grade African American students participated in the study. As anticipated, both types of socialization moderated the relationship between discrimination and self-esteem. The negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was mitigated for youth who reported more messages about race pride and a moderate amount of preparation for bias from their parents. In contrast, low race pride socialization and both high and low preparation for bias were associated with a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The negative relationship between self-esteem and perceptions of discrimination was more pronounced in the absence of preparation for bias as compared to in the presence of such socialization efforts.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The majority of studies examining the influence of race pride socialization indicate that messages about cultural knowledge and pride are related to higher overall functioning and self-esteem (Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002; Constantine & Blackmon, 2002; Hughes & Chen, 1999; Stevenson, Reed, Bodison, & Bishop, 1997; however, see Fisher et al., 2000, for null findings).”
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Parental messages that signal to youth that they will consistently and persistently face prejudice and discrimination because of their race (a personal and internal factor), regardless of their own effort, may be maladaptive.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present results suggest that some of the negative effects associated with perceiving oneself to be the victim of racial discrimination may be mitigated if adolescents have been adequately socialized to deal with such experiences.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
In the paper
“Taken together, these results support theories that suggest that African American adolescents who do not understand racism and their unique cultural heritage may be handicapped in terms of their ability to cope effectively with racism (Stevenson et al., 1997).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stevenson et al., 1997 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results from a number of studies have linked experiences of discrimination and perceived racism to a range of psychosocial difficulties in African American youth, including low self-esteem and depressive symptoms (Caldwell et al., 2004; Clark, Coleman, & Novak, 2004; DuBois, Burk-Braxton, Swenson, Tevendale, & Hardesty, 2002; Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000; Nyborg & Curry, 2003; Prelow, Danoff-B”
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not until one examines the relative influence (i.e., the quantity or frequency) of racial socialization messages can the presence or absence of this relationship be adequately understood.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This result supports prior theory suggesting that feelings of devaluation that may result from discriminatory experiences might be intensified by a frequent focus on racism (Hughes & Johnson, 2001; Stevenson et al., 1997).”
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Excellent internal consistency for the composite score was found in the present sample ( a 5 .83).”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 11
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The two-way interaction between perceived discrimination and preparation for bias was significant, t (92) 5 2.50, p o .05, but was qualified by the significant interaction between perceived discrimination and the squared term for preparation for bias, t (92) 5 3.04, p o .01.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was significant when levels of race pride socialization were at o 1 SD below the mean but was not significantly different from zero when race pride socialization was at or above the mean.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean scores were calculated for the race pride (eight items; a 5 .74) and preparation for bias (nine items; a 5 .84) subscales.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
In the paper
“Fischer and Shaw's (1999) investigation with African American college students, ages 18-25, found that the negative relationship between perceived racism and overall mental health was significant at low levels (.5 SD below mean) of bias preparation but nonsignificant at high levels (.5 SD above mean) of bias preparation.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fischer & Shaw, 1999 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Some studies have found that parental preparation for bias is positively related to higher academic functioning, self-efficacy, and fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents (Bowman & Howard, 1985; Hughes & Chen, 1999; Stevenson et al., 1997).”
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Qualitatively, adolescents' reports of race pride messages appeared to serve as a direct buffer on this relationship, as perceptions of discrimination were associated with lower self-esteem for adolescents who reported minimal exposure to positive messages about their heritage and culture, whereas adolescents who reported more frequent exposure to race pride messages did not seem to be negatively”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Test-retest reliability and validity have been established in prior research, and internal consistency was strong in the present sample ( a 5 .76).”
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
In the paper
“Racial discrimination, defined as ''beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation,'' is often viewed as such a risk factor (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999, p. 805).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A large body of literature has linked perceived racial discrimination to deleterious physiological and psychological outcomes in African American adults (see Clark et al., 1999, for a review).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark et al., 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It is important to note that Fischer and Shaw (1999) only focused on reports of messages related to racism and barriers, without exploring the possible effects of cultural pride messages.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fischer & Shaw, 1999 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, racial socialization may be an even stronger moderator of the impact of discrimination among adolescents, as compared with young adults, given the greater daily proximity to their parents and developmental stage.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Racial socialization-the implicit, explicit, purposeful, and unintended ways that parents' beliefs and behaviors convey views about race to children-has been cited as the primary practice utilized by African American families and communities to assist children in coping with race-related issues such as discrimination (Hughes, 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hughes, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results revealed no significant mean differences between adolescents' perceptions of discrimination, parental racial socialization practices, or self-esteem as a function of adolescents' gender, school attended, parent education level, parental marital status, or household income.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the data used to test our hypotheses were gathered at a single time point. Consequently, causal relationships and temporal ordering cannot be established.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean scores were calculated for the race pride (eight items; a 5 .74) and preparation for bias (nine items; a 5 .84) subscales.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with our hypotheses, the buffering effects of preparation for bias do not seem to operate in the same manner as racial pride messages, because preparation for bias had a curvilinear influence on the relationship between perceptions of discrimination and self-esteem.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A risk of using adolescent reports for all measures is that they may not be veridical. In this case, adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and/or their self-esteem may have influenced their reports of parenting.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bivariate correlations between the three subscales ranged from .53 to .88 ( p 4 .001 ) in our sample; thus, a composite average across items was utilized.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, an overemphasis on bias-that is, parents' frequent reminders of racial barriers-may lead adolescents to feel helpless and lacking control over their environment and consequently result in lower self-esteem.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
- Rests on an assumption: Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents' self-reports of discrimination and parental racial socialization are accurate enough to test the buffering hypotheses.
“A risk of using adolescent reports for all measures is that they may not be veridical. In this case, adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and/or their self-esteem may have influenced their reports of parenting.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of parental race messages are more important than an objective measure of parental socialization.
“We elected to use adolescent reports of parental racial socialization rather than parent reports because we believed that adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of race messages were more important than an objective measure of such socialization.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Final-model coefficient tests use inconsistent degrees of freedom
MinorThe final race-pride regression has 82 residual degrees of freedom, but its coefficient tests are reported with 92. Coefficient t-tests from that same final regression would use its residual degrees of freedom.
“F( 10, 82) 5 2.43, p o .05 and accounted for 12% of the variance in predicting adolescents' self-esteem”
“perceived discrimination and the squared term for race pride, t (92) 5 2.50, 2.45, and 2.91, respectively, all p 's o .05.”
Two different standard deviations are reported for age
MinorThe participant description gives the age standard deviation as 0.67 years, while Table 1 gives it as 0.63 years.
“M age 5 13.9 years; SD 5 .67; 68 girls, 60 boys”
“| 1. Age (years) | 13.87 (.63) |”
Race-pride model reports an incompatible change F statistic
MinorFor the reported Step 2 F(8, 84) of 1.59 and final F(10, 82) of 2.43, the two-predictor change F is approximately 5.16, not 4.29. The three reported F statistics cannot all describe those successive models.
“F( 10, 82) 5 2.43, p o .05 and accounted for 12% of the variance in predicting adolescents' self-esteem, D F (2, 82) 5 4.29, p o .05.”
“F( 8, 84) 5 1.59, p o .15, and the two-way interaction between perceived discrimination and race pride did not contribute additional variance in predicting selfesteem, D F (1, 84) 5 1.51, p 5 .22.”
Citations
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Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions
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Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model.
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.10.805 · Cited by 2,830
Resilience in the Face of Catastrophe: Optimism, Personality, and Coping in the Kosovo Crisis
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The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination.
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Discrimination Distress During Adolescence
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Ecological Correlates of Depression and Self-Esteem in Rural Youth
Smokowski, P. R., Evans, C. B. R., Cotter, K. L., & Guo, S. (2014) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-013-0420-8 · Cited by 33
Intergenerational Transmission of Ethnoracial Historical Trauma in the United States
Nagata, D. K., Kim, J. H. J., & Gone, J. P. (2024) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-044522 · Cited by 29
Bernard, D., & Neblett, E. (2018) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-017-0073-0 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Harris‐Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz‐Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Harris‐Britt, April
- Venue
- Journal of Research on Adolescence
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-12
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 669-682
- ISSN
- 1050-8392 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7795
- PMC
- PMC2917995
- OpenAlex
- W2141800004
- Semantic Scholar
- 2d03ac58d625720daea57677c6412097c57039f5
- Cited by
- 401
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 27.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Research on Adolescence (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R03HD044052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Psychosocial Factors Impacting Youth
- Keywords
- perceived racial discrimination, self-esteem, racial socialization, African American youth, race pride, preparation for bias, protective factors, moderation, eighth grade students, parent-child communication
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-01, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-01 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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