Cited by 514Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances researchToxic Organic Pollutants ImpactFluoride Effects and Removal

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Estimating Consumer Exposure to PFOS and PFOA

Trudel, David, Horowitz, Lea, Wormuth, Matthias, Scheringer, Martin, Cousins, Ian T., Hungerbühler, Konrad·2008·Risk Analysis

DOI 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2008.01017.x

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Abstract

Perfluorinated compounds have been used for more than 50 years as process aids, surfactants, and for surface protection. This study is a comprehensive assessment of consumer exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from a variety of environmental and product-related sources. To identify relevant pathways leading to consumer exposure to PFOS and PFOA a scenario-based approach has been applied. Scenarios represent realistic situations where age- and gender-specific exposure occurs in the everyday life of consumers. We find that North American and European consumers are likely to experience ubiquitous and long-term uptake doses of PFOS and PFOA in the range of 3 to 220 ng per kg body weight per day (ng/kg(bw)/day) and 1 to 130 ng/kg(bw)/day, respectively. The greatest portion of the chronic exposure to PFOS and PFOA is likely to result from the intake of contaminated foods, including drinking water. Consumer products cause a minor portion of the consumer exposure to PFOS and PFOA. Of these, it is mainly impregnation sprays, treated carpets in homes, and coated food contact materials that may lead to consumer exposure to PFOS and PFOA. Children tend to experience higher total uptake doses (on a body weight basis) than teenagers and adults because of higher relative uptake via food consumption and hand-to-mouth transfer of chemical from treated carpets and ingestion of dust. The uptake estimates based on scenarios are within the range of values derived from blood serum data by applying a one-compartment pharmacokinetic model.

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Analysis of selected perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in beer to evaluate the effect of beer consumption on human PFAS exposure: a pilot study
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Toxicokinetics of perfluorooctane sulfonate in rabbits under environmentally realistic exposure conditions and comparative assessment between mammals and birds.
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Paired-ion electrospray ionization – triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry for quantification of anionic surfactants in waters
Santos, I. C., Guo, H., Mesquita, R. B. R., Rangel, A. O. S. S., Armstrong, D. W., & Schug, K. A. (2015) · Talanta · doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2015.04.081 · Cited by 15
“As a result, they have been added to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) priority list for future regulation in drinking water [14,15].”
Background
POPs and Human Health Risk Assessment
Szabo, D. T., & Loccisano, A. E. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118184141.ch19 · Cited by 14
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Serum of 2 to 5 year-Old Children: Temporal Trends, Determinants, and Correlations with Maternal PFAS Concentrations
Oh, J., Shin, H.-M., Kannan, K., Calafat, A. M., Schmidt, R. J., Hertz-Picciotto, I., & Bennett, D. H. (2024) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c08928 · Cited by 29
Concentrations, sources and health risks of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in ambient PM1 in the Pearl River Delta region, China
Yang, M., Liu, X., Xu, S.-L., Wang, X., Roponen, M., Jin, N.-X., Huang, J.-W., Wu, Q.-Z., Chu, C., Sun, M.-K., et al. (2025) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2025.109439 · Cited by 13
Does soil track-in contribute to house dust concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in areas affected by soil or water contamination?
Scher, D. P., Kelly, J. E., Huset, C. A., Barry, K. M., & Yingling, V. (2018) · Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1038/s41370-018-0101-6 · Cited by 13
Poly/Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFASs) – Synthetic Methods, Properties and Applications
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Report on the two‐phase public consultation on the draft EFSA scientific opinion on bisphenol A (BPA)
(EFSA), E. F. S. A. (2015) · EFSA Supporting Publications · doi:10.2903/sp.efsa.2015.en-740 · Cited by 13
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Zhong, G., Li, Z., Jones, K. C., & Zhu, Y. B. (2025) · The Lancet Planetary Health · doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(25)00114-7 · Cited by 12
Extraction procedure optimization for perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in food packaging determination by LC-MS/MS
Poothong, S., Boontanon, S. K., & Boontanon, N. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B · doi:10.1080/03601234.2013.795838 · Cited by 12
“The most commonly used compounds in this group are perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA).[1] PFOS and PFOA are synthetic organic chemicals consisting of a fully fluorinated carbon chain and a sulfonate group or carboxylic group, respectively.”
Background
Detail study on the interaction between perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) with human hemoglobin (Hb)
Perera, N. L. D., Betancourt, J., Mikšovská, J., & Ο'Shea, K. Ε. (2023) · Current Research in Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.crtox.2023.100130 · Cited by 12
“The use of several problematic PFAS was restricted or banned in several countries including the USA (Trudel et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential
Association between in utero perfluoroalkyl substance exposure and anti-Müllerian hormone levels in adolescent females in a British cohort
Donley, G. M., Taylor, E., Jeddy, Z., Namulanda, G., & Hartman, T. J. (2019) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2019.108585 · Cited by 12
“PFAS accumulate in both the food chain and environment, which leads to potential human exposure through ingestion of contaminated food or drinking water [5].”
Background
Removal of PFAS from Water by Plants
Greger, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources · doi:10.19080/ijesnr.2021.28.556233 · Cited by 12
“PFAS have been manufactured for half a century for use as wetting agents, stain-resistant treatments, lubricants, impregnation sprays and corrosion inhibitors in foam extinguishers, clothing, leather, paper and more [1,2].”
Background
Application of a Microporous Polyethylene Tube Passive Sampler for Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Wastewater Influent and Effluent
Mackie, R., Hawker, D. W., Ghorbani Gorji, S., Booij, K., Qu, X., Bowles, K., Shea, S., Higgins, C. P., & Kaserzon, S. (2024) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.4c00125 · Cited by 11
PFOS impairs cardiac function and energy metabolism under high-fat diet: Insights into role of circulating macrophage emphasized by exposure distribution
Zhang, Z., Yin, H. R., Zheng, C., Yu, Z., Ahmed, R. Z., Niu, Y., Zhou, C., Ding, J., Lin, H., Lin, Y., et al. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175139 · Cited by 12
Understanding prenatal household exposures to per- and polyfluorylalkyl substances using paired Biological and dust measurements with sociodemographic and housing variables
Wallis, D. J., Miller, K. E., DeLuca, N. M., Thomas, K., Fuller, C., McCord, J. P., Hubal, E. A. C., & Minucci, J. M. (2024) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2024.109157 · Cited by 11
“…primarily ingestion but, less so, dermal absorption, may be responsible for up to 50 % of serum PFAS levels for some PFAS (DeLuca et al., 2022; Haug et al., 2011; Egeghy, 2011; Lorber, 2011; Trudel et al., 2008; Kim and Lee, 2019; Gebbink and Berger, 2015; Gomis et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2020).”
The Alarming Effects of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) on One Health and Interconnections with Food-Producing Animals in Circular and Sustainable Agri-Food Systems
Shurson, G. C. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17156957 · Cited by 12
Effect of washing, soaking, and cooking methods on perfluorinated compounds in mackerel (Scomber japonicus)
Kim, M., Park, J., Luo, L., Min, J., Kim, J. H., Yang, H., Kho, Y., Kang, G. J., Chung, M., Shin, S., et al. (2020) · Food Science & Nutrition · doi:10.1002/fsn3.1737 · Cited by 11
“Seafood has been reported to show a higher PFC content than other food items (Haug et al., 2010; Trudel et al., 2008), and Korea is one of the highest seafood consuming countries in the world (Choi et al., 2017).”
Background
Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of perfluorooctanoic acid-serum protein interactions by structural mass spectrometry
Zhang, W., Liu, Z., Zhou, Y., Lai, C., Sun, B., He, M., Zhai, Z., Wang, J., Wang, Q., Wang, X., et al. (2021) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132945 · Cited by 11
Regional Ecological Health or Risk Assessments of Stream Ecosystems Using Biomarkers and Bioindicators of Target Species (Pale Chub)
Kim, J., Yeom, D., Kim, W., & An, K. (2016) · Water Air & Soil Pollution · doi:10.1007/s11270-016-3173-8 · Cited by 11
“Most of chemical exposure pathway occurs to the fish through the food intake in the aquatic ecosystem (Trudel et al. 2008).”
Background
Synthesis of Poly(methyl methacrylate-co-butyl acrylate)/Perfluorosilyl Methacrylate Core-Shell Nanoparticles: Novel Approach for Optimization of Coating Process
Kook, J., Kim, Y., Hwang, K., Kim, J. H., & Lee, J. (2018) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym10111186 · Cited by 11
“Therefore, short perfluoroalkyl groups with seven or fewer carbon atoms play an important role in practical applications as studies involving non-human primates and human tissues have indicated that short perfluoroalkyl groups have substantially shorter half-lives and are less toxic than long perfluoroalkyl groups [11…”
Background
Applications of Mass Spectrometry in Textile Analysis: An Overview
Ruan, Y., Meng, X., Wang, J., Wang, H., Ye, Q., Shou, Q., & Ma, Q. (2024) · Journal of Analysis and Testing · doi:10.1007/s41664-024-00322-1 · Cited by 10
“…phthalates as plasticizers [12–14], formaldehyde in durable press finishes [15, 16], alkylphenol ethoxylates as detergents and finishing agents [17], perfluorinated compounds for waterproofing and oil-repellency [18], and 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-di-tert-butylphenol as a UV stabilizer [19].”
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and hypertensive disorders of Pregnancy- integration of epidemiological and mechanistic evidence
Dangudubiyyam, S. V., Hofmann, A., Yadav, P., & Kumar, S. (2024) · Reproductive Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2024.108702 · Cited by 10
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: using comparative medicine to understand exposure and adverse health outcomes in people and their pets
Brake, H. D., Wilkins, M. J., & Kaneene, J. B. (2023) · American Journal of Veterinary Research · doi:10.2460/ajvr.22.12.0221 · Cited by 12
Rapid biomonitoring of perfluoroalkyl substance exposures in serum by multisegment injection‐nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis‐tandem mass spectrometry
Azab, S. M., Hum, R., & Britz‐McKibbin, P. (2020) · Analytical Science Advances · doi:10.1002/ansa.202000053 · Cited by 9
“3-5 Yet, PFASs are a major contaminant class in environmental toxicology given their persistence and tendency to bioaccumulate with widespread human exposures from the ingestionof contaminated food and drinking water, 6,7 as well as household cookware, treated carpets, and waterproofed clothing.”
Background
Nordic research on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)
Cousins, I. T. (2013) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-013-2000-7 · Cited by 10
Self-citation
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Mumtaz, M. M., Buser, M. C., & Pohl, H. R. (2021) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287394.2021.1901251 · Cited by 9
“The major exposure pathways for PFOS for the general population in Europe and North America are food and water ingestion, dust ingestion, and hand-to-mouth transfer from mill-treated carpets (Trudel et al. 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Skin Permeability of Perfluorocarboxylic Acids Using Flow-Through Diffusion on Porcine Skin
Hall, A. S., Baynes, R. E., Neumann, L., Maïbach, H. I., & Ormond, R. B. (2024) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics12100703 · Cited by 11
“While dermal absorption has been assumed to be the least likely pathway for PFAS exposure in comparison to inhalation and ingestion [6,7], it is still a potential source of exposure.”
Background
The impact of early life exposure to individual and combined PFAS on learning, memory, and bioaccumulation in C. elegans
Currie, S. D., Ji, Y., Huang, Q., Wang, J., & Tang, L. (2024) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2024.125257 · Cited by 10
Integrated PBPK modelling for PFOA exposure and risk assessment
Karakoltzidis, A., Karakitsios, S., Gabriel, C., & Sarigiannis, D. A. (2025) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2025.121947 · Cited by 9
Unknown Organofluorine Mixtures in U.S. Adult Serum:Contribution from Pharmaceuticals?
Pennoyer, E. H., Heiger‐Bernays, W., Aro, R., Yeung, L. W. Y., Schlezinger, J. J., & Webster, T. F. (2023) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics11050416 · Cited by 11
Exogenous factors associated with legacy PFAS concentrations in the general U.S. population: NHANES 1999-2018
McAdam, J., Jones, L., Romeiko, X. X., & Bell, E. (2024) · Water Emerging Contaminants & Nanoplastics · doi:10.20517/wecn.2024.05 · Cited by 11
Binding of a perfluorinated surfactant to β-lactoglobulin in aqueous solutions
Schwieger, C., & Ropers, M. (2012) · Food Hydrocolloids · doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.05.021 · Cited by 9
“Diet constitutes the major source of perfluorinated contaminants for the background population (Fromme et al., 2009; Haug et al., 2010; Kantiani, Llorca, Sanchis, Farre, & Barcelo, 2010; Llorca et al., 2010; Tittlemier et al., 2007; Trudel et al., 2008).”
Background
Partitioning Characteristics of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Between Water and Foods
Xiao, F., Simcik, M. F., & Gulliver, J. S. (2011) · Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00244-011-9683-x · Cited by 9
“Tao et al. (2008) observed PFOS in 100% of 45 breast milk samples from survey participants in Massachusetts.”
Background
Final report: Testing a procedure for the identification of emerging chemical risks in the food chain. External Scientific Report. OC/EFSA/SCER/2014/03
Bitsch, A., Bohlen, M., Escher, S. E., Licht, O., Oltmanns, J., Schneider, K., & Wibbertmann, A. (2016) · EFSA Supporting Publications · doi:10.2903/sp.efsa.2016.en-1050 · Cited by 9
The occurrence, exposure and risk assessment of perfluoroalkyl acids in food from mainland, China
Wang, X., Zhang, R., Zhang, H., & Wang, Y. (2017) · Food Additives & Contaminants Part A · doi:10.1080/19440049.2017.1347282 · Cited by 9
“The Scenario-Based Risk Assessment (SceBRA) model (Trudel et al. 2008; Gebbink et al. 2014) was used to estimate the PFAAs dietary exposure (EDI), as shown in Equation (1).”
Method
Human biomonitoring follow-up study on PFOA contamination and investigation of possible influencing factors on PFOA exposure in a German population originally exposed to emissions from a fluoropolymer production plant
Lahne, H., Gerstner, D. G., Völkel, W., Schöber, W., Aschenbrenner, B., Herr, C., Heinze, S., & Quartucci, C. (2024) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114387 · Cited by 12
Polluants éternels et contamination humaine : état des lieux et enjeux autour des substances per- et polyfluoroalkylées (PFAS)
Gaillard, L., Bernal, K., Coumoul, X., Andréau, K., & Blanc, É. (2024) · Cahiers de Nutrition et de Diététique · doi:10.1016/j.cnd.2024.10.003 · Cited by 11
Levels and determinants of exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances in French pregnant women from the SEPAGES cohort
Jovanovic, N., Brantsæter, A. L., Lyon-Caen, S., Duval, B., Carras, S., Bédard, A., Ait‐hadad, W., de Lauzon‐Guillain, B., Siroux, V., Bayat, S., et al. (2025) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2025.109559 · Cited by 9
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Background
Predictors of Serum Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Concentrations among U.S. Couples Attending a Fertility Clinic
Zhang, Y., Sun, Q., Mustieles, V., Martin, L., Sun, Y., Bibi, Z., Torres, N., Coburn-Sanderson, A., First, O., Souter, I. C., et al. (2024) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c08457 · Cited by 9
Concentrations and isomer profiles of perfluoroalkyl carboxylates in house rats (Rattus norvegicus) and human blood: Implication for human exposure sources
Zhao, N., Jin, H., Mao, W., Zhao, M., & Chen, Y. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163431 · Cited by 8
Perfluorinated Compounds in Food Contact Materials
Rice, P. A., Bandele, O. J., & Honigfort, P. (2014) · Molecular and integrative toxicology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-6500-2_7 · Cited by 8
“Attempts to model comprehensive reviews of available exposure data from various routes have focused on PFOA and PFOS exposure and agree that dietary sources are the major route for human exposure to these compounds, in some scenarios accounting for 90 % or greater of the exposure (Fromme et al. 2009; Trudel et al. 200…”
Background

Authors: Trudel, D., Horowitz, L., Wormuth, M., Scheringer, M., Cousins, I. T., & Hungerbühler, K.
Affiliations: ETH Zurich (CH)
Stockholm University (SE)
Corresponding author: Scheringer, Martin
ORCID: Scheringer, Martin
Cousins, Ian T.
Venue: Risk Analysis
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2008-04
Volume: 28
Issue: 2
Pages: 251-269
ISSN: 0272-4332 (ISSN-L)
1539-6924
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2008.01017.x
OpenAlex: W2038447616
Cited by: 514
References: 79
Citations by year: 2026: 24 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 23
FWCI: 21.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 15 d)
Locations: Risk Analysis (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Bundesamt für Gesundheit
Health Canada
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
Keywords: PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorinated compounds, consumer exposure, exposure assessment, food contamination, drinking water contamination, consumer goods, food contact materials, children's exposure, dust ingestion, one-compartment model
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Caprylates, Child, Child, Preschool, Dust, Environmental Exposure, Environmental Monitoring, Environmental Pollutants, Female, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Infant, Male, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Air Pollution, Indoor, Alkanesulfonic Acids

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Estimating Consumer Exposure to PFOS and PFOA

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