Eye-direction detection: A dissociation between geometric and joint attention skills in autism
Abstract
This study examined differences between children with autism and control children in the ability to follow another person's direction of gaze. In Expt 1, children with autism, Down syndrome and normally developing children were given two tasks. The gaze monitoring task (GMT) measured the child's spontaneous tendency to follow gaze direction in response to another person's change of head and eye movement. The visual perspective taking task (VPT) measured the child's ability to compute and report what the other person was looking at, when instructed to do so. Results showed that the majority of Down syndrome and normal children passed both tasks. In contrast, children with autism failed the GMT. This failure could not have been due to a lack of the relevant geometric skill, as they passed the VPT. This geometric skill was examined further in Expt 2, using a fine discrimination task which tested children's ability to discriminate degrees of change in the orientation of gaze. Children with autism were well within their developmental age level on this task. These results indicate a dissociation between (impaired) spontaneous monitoring and (intact) geometric analysis of gaze‐direction.
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Leekam et al. (1997) found that the ability of children with ASD to discriminate degrees of change in the orientation of the gaze of an adult from calibrated photographs was well matched to their developmental age level, corresponding to a displacement of the iris as small as 3.5 arcmin.
“Leekam, Baron-Cohen, Perrett, Milders, and Brown (1997) found that the ability of children with ASD to discriminate degrees of change in the orientation of the gaze of an adult from carefully prepared and calibrated photographs was well matched to their developmental age level, corresponding to a displacement of the iris as small as 3.5 arcmin”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
Leekam et al. (1997) found that the ability of children with ASD to spontaneously follow the gaze of an experimenter was well below that of controls.
“although their ability to spontaneously follow the gaze of an experimenter was well below that of controls.”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
Campbell et al.'s (2006) task was likely more challenging than Leekam et al.'s (1997) in that the gaze displacements were smaller.
“Their task was likely more challenging than that of Leekam et al. (1997) in that the gaze displacements were smaller.”
From Vision in autism spectrum disorders (2009) · cites this paper as Leekam et al. (1997)
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BackgroundResultThe developmental origins of naïve psychology in infancy.
Poulin-Dubois, D., Brooker, I., & Chow, V. (2009) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(09)03702-1 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Perrett, D. I., Xiao, D., Barraclough, N. E., Keysers, C., & Oram, M. W. (2009) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210902959279 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationPhillips, W., Gómez, J. C., Baron‐Cohen, S., Laá, V., & Rivière, Á. (1995) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01670.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationTeaching Joint Attention to Children with Autism Through A Sibling‐Mediated Behavioral Intervention
Ferraioli, S. J., & Harris, S. L. (2011) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.336 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“disordered, mentally retarded, and Down syndrome populations (Baron-Cohen, 1989; Charman et al., 1997; Leekam et al., 1997; Mundy et al., 1994), which suggests a joint attention deficit specificity in children with autism.”
Atypical Gaze Following in Autism: A Comparison of Three Potential Mechanisms
Gillespie‐Lynch, K., Elias, R., Escudero, P., Hutman, T., & Johnson, S. P. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1818-7 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Such an approach yielded intriguing evidence that the ability to report where someone is looking may be intact among children with autism who do not spontaneously follow gaze (Leekam et al. 1997).”
Understanding photos, models, and beliefs: A test of the modularity thesis of theory of mind
Charman, T., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (1995) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/0885-2014(95)90013-6 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Developmental Origins of Gaze‐Following in Human Infants
Bianco, T. D., Falck‐Ytter, T., Thorup, E., & Gredebäck, G. (2018) · Infancy · doi:10.1111/infa.12276 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Akechi, H., Senju, A., Kikuchi, Y., Tojo, Y., Osanai, H., & Hasegawa, T. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.05.026 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Goldberg, M. C., Mostow, A. J., Vecera, S. P., Larson, J. C. G., Mostofsky, S. H., Mahone, E. M., & DENCKLA, M. B. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0506-x · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Children with autism are also reported to have deficits in using information provided by another person's change in eye gaze to look toward the same target in the periphery (Leekam et al. 1997).”
BackgroundFace‐ and gaze‐sensitive neural responses in children with autism: a magnetoencephalographic study
Kylliäinen, A., Braeutigam, S., Hietanen, J. K., Swithenby, S., & Bailey, A. J. (2006) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05132.x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Given that children with autism can recognize where another person is looking (Baron-Cohen et al., 1995; Leekam et al., 1997; Kylliäinen & Hietanen, 2004), these findings suggest that this knowledge may be mediated by alternative neural strategies (Leekam et al., 1997).”
BackgroundInfluentialFunctional training for initiating joint attention in children with autism
Naoi, N., Tsuchiya, R., Yamamoto, J., & Nakamura, K. (2007) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2007.10.001 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Imitation of Intentional and Accidental Actions by Children with Autism
D’Entremont, B., & Yazbek, A. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0291-y · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Hartley, C., Bird, L., & Padraic Monaghan, B. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104265 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Freire, A., Eskritt, M., & Lee, K. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1093 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, this may not be true of everyone: It has been suggested that insensitivity to eye gaze is related to impairments in social and cognitive functioning, as in autism and Asperger syndrome (Baron-Cohen, Campbell, Karmiloff-Smith, Grant, & Walker, 1995; Baron-Cohen, Joliffe, Mortimore, & Robertson, 1997; Leek…”
BackgroundIntact priors for gaze direction in adults with high-functioning autism spectrum conditions
Pell, P. J., Mareschal, I., Calder, A. J., Hagen, E. V. D., Clifford, C. W. G., Baron‐Cohen, S., & Ewbank, M. (2016) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0085-9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“cessing of facial identity [4] and eye gaze [5], although recent work has found evidence of typical response patterns”
BackgroundSelf-citationRomero, V., Fitzpatrick, P., Roulier, S., Duncan, A. W., Richardson, M. J., & Schmidt, R. C. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0193906 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Responding to Joint Attention (RJA) was assessed by using the gaze-monitoring task [44,53].”
MethodThe development of gaze following as a Bayesian systems identification problem
Movellan, J. R., & Watson, J. S. (2003) · IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning (ICDL) · doi:10.1109/devlrn.2002.1011728 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“These results cast some doubt on theories of gaze following which explain its emergence via specialized innate modules specifically designed to track morphological structures of the human face [20].”
Warreyn, P., Roeyers, H., Oelbrandt, T., & De Groote, I. (2005) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-005-2201-1 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Although they fail spontaneous gaze monitoring tasks (e.g., Leekam et al., 1997 ), children with autism from 5 years onwards seem to be able to judge what a person is looking at, as measured by visual perspective taking (VPT) tasks (Baron-Cohen, 1989, 9‐16 years; Dawson and Fernald, 1987, 6‐14 years; Hobson, 1984, 9‐1…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSocial rejection increases perspective taking
Knowles, M. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.008 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Are you looking at me? Accuracy in processing line–of–sight in Turner syndrome
Elgar, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2002) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2173 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“In humans, patients with righthemisphere posterior lesions can show impairment in such tasks (Campbell et al. 1990), as do people with autism, both in childhood (Leekam et al. 1997) and as adults (Howard et al. 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJoint Attention and Early Intervention with Autism: A Conceptual Framework and Promising Approaches
Schertz, H. H., & Odom, S. L. (2004) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/105381510402700104 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Several empirical studies have established that children with autism are distinguishable from others with developmental delay, language delay, and typical development on measures of joint attention and that joint attention fails to de- velop as expected in children with ASD (Leekam, Baron-Cohen, Perrett, Milders, & Br…”
BackgroundObjects Capture Perceived Gaze Direction
Lobmaier, J. S., Fischer, M. H., & Schwaninger, A. (2006) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.53.2.117 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“For example, in a frequently cited paper, Leekam et al. (1997) presented photographs of a looker behind three rods and asked children to determine which of the objects the looker fixated.”
BackgroundTeaching joint attention to children with autism through a sibling-mediated behavioral intervention
Ferraioli, S. J. (2008) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t3tb177d · Cited by 47 · see citing works
- Authors
- Leekam, S., Baron‐Cohen, S., Perrett, D., Milders, M., & Brown, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- University of St Andrews (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Leekam, Susan
- Venue
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 77-95
- ISSN
- 0261-510X (ISSN-L)
- 2044-835X
- OpenAlex
- W2171357760
- Cited by
- 257
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 4.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, joint attention, visual perspective taking, Down syndrome, social cognition, children
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