Harmful Ideas, The Structure and Consequences of Anti‐S emitic Beliefs in P oland

Bilewicz, Michal; Winiewski, Mikołaj; Kofta, Mirosław; Wójcik, Adrian

doi:10.1111/pops.12024

Cited by 207Social and Intergroup PsychologyReligion, Theology, History, Judaism, ChristianityGerman legal, social, and political studies

Harmful Ideas, The Structure and Consequences of Anti‐S emitic Beliefs in P oland

Bilewicz, Michal, Winiewski, Mikołaj, Kofta, Mirosław, Wójcik, Adrian·2013·Political Psychology

DOI 10.1111/pops.12024

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Abstract

The harmfulness of anti‐Semitic beliefs is widely discussed in current political and legal debates (e.g.,Cutler v. Dorn). At the same time, empirical studies of the psychological consequences of such beliefs are scarce. The present research is an attempt to explore the structure of contemporary anti‐Semitic beliefs inPoland—and to evaluate their predictive role in discriminatory intentions and behavior targetingJews. Another aim was to determine dispositional, situational, and identity correlates of different forms of anti‐Semitic beliefs and behavior. Study 1, performed on a nation‐wide representative sample ofPolish adults (N = 979), suggests a three‐factorial structure of anti‐Semitic beliefs, consisting of: (1) belief inJewish conspiracy, (2) traditional religious anti‐Judaic beliefs, and (3) secondary anti‐Semitic beliefs, focusing on Holocaust commemoration. Of these three beliefs, belief inJewish conspiracy was the closest antecedent of anti‐Semitic behavioral intentions. Study 2 (N = 600 Internet users inPoland) confirmed the three‐factor structure of anti‐Semitic beliefs and proved that these beliefs explain actual behavior towardJews in monetary donations. Both studies show that anti‐Semitic beliefs are related to authoritarian personality characteristics, victimhood‐based social identity, and relative deprivation.

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Jewish conspiracy theory beliefs are related to prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people and several other outgroups.
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From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [25]

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Influential
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“Imhoff andBruder (2014) also showed that a tendency toward conspiracy theorizing was associated with prejudice towards high-power groups such as Jews and Americans.”
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“This prediction was partly based on research on anti-Semitism, which showed that above and beyond anti-Semitic prejudices, anti-Semitic conspiracy beliefs were most significantly predictive of negative intergroup outcome measures (Bilewicz et al., 2013).”
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“Furthermore, reading about anti-Semitic conspiracy theories increases prejudice and discrimination towards people of the Jewish faith (Jolley, Meleady, et al., 2020; but also see Bilewicz, et al., 2013).”
Terrorism and conspiracy theories: A view from the 3N model of radicalization
Kruglanski, A. W., Molinario, E., Ellenberg, M. D., & Cicco, G. D. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101396 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Zero‐sum beliefs shape advantaged allies’ support for collective action
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What inverted U can do for your country: A curvilinear relationship between confidence in the social system and political engagement.
Cichocka, A. K., Górska, P., Jost, J. T., Sutton, R. M., & Bilewicz, M. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000168 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
What is so special about conspiracy theories? Conceptually distinguishing beliefs in conspiracy theories from conspiracy beliefs in psychological research
Nera, K., & Schöpfer, C. (2023) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/09593543231155891 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“…2017), AIDS being a human-made weapon (Bogart & Thorburn, 2005; Jolley & Jaspal, 2020), Muslims’ desire to invade Western countries (Uenal et al., 2020), or Jewish people’s desire to dominate the world (Bilewicz et al., 2013)—all of these are conspiracy theory beliefs, by the proposed definition.”
Background
Beyond belief: How social engagement motives influence the spread of conspiracy theories
Ren, Z., Dimant, E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104421 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Historia est magistra vitae”? The impact of historical victimhood on current conspiracy beliefs
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“Historical victimhood also leads to mistrust of legal norms and support for exclusion of outgroup members (Vollhardt & Bilali, 2015), support for strong authoritarian leaders and social distance from outgroups (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Goertzel, 1994; Grzesiak-Feldman & Haska, 2015).”
Competition over collective victimhood recognition: when perceived lack of recognition for past victimization is associated with negative attitudes towards another victimized group.
De Guissmé, L., & Licata, L. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2244 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Reasons to believe: A systematic review and meta-analytic synthesis of the motives associated with conspiracy beliefsPreprint
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Douglas, K. M., Azevedo, F., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rxjqc · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Collective Victimhood and Social Prejudice: A Post‐Holocaust Theory of Anti‐Semitism
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Multinational data show that conspiracy beliefs are associated with the perception (and reality) of poor national economic performance
Hornsey, M. J., Pearson, S. G., Kang, J., Sassenberg, K., Jetten, J., Lange, P. A. M. V., Medina, L. G., Amiot, C. E., Ausmees, L., Baguma, P., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2888 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The targets of all treachery: Delusional ideation, paranoia, and the need for uniqueness as mediators between two forms of narcissism and conspiracy beliefs
Kay, C. S. (2021) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104128 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs as an adaptation to historical trauma
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The Dark Side of Emotion Regulation: Historical Defensiveness as an Obstacle in Reconciliation
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Defensive representations of an uncomfortable history: The case of Hungary and the Holocaust
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“They've conspired against us”: Understanding the role of social identification and conspiracy beliefs in justification of ingroup collective behavior
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Different Pasts for Different Political Folk: Political Orientation Predicts Collective Nostalgia Content
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Regulatory Focus and Conspiratorial Perceptions: The Importance of Personal Control
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Authoritarians Go with the Flow: Social Norms Moderate the Link between Right‐Wing Authoritarianism and Outgroup‐Directed Attitudes
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Conspiracy theories as opportunistic attributions of power
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On Old-Fashioned Versus Modern Homonegativity Distinction: Evidence From Poland
Górska, P., Bilewicz, M., Winiewski, M. H., & Waszkiewicz, A. (2016) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2016.1179029 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Awe, ideological conviction, and perceptions of ideological opponents.
Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. J. (2019) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000665 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Political conspiracy theories as tools for mobilization and signaling
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Negative stereotypes as motivated justifications for moral exclusion
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Biased hate crime perceptions can reveal supremacist sympathies
Leander, N. P., Kreienkamp, J., Agostini, M., Stroebe, W., Gordijn, E., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1916883117 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Role of Identity Subversion in Structuring the Effects of Intergroup Threats and Negative Emotions on Belief in Anti-West Conspiracy Theories in Indonesia
Mashuri, A., Zaduqisti, E., Sukmawati, F., Sakdiah, H., & Suharini, N. (2016) · Psychology and Developing Societies · doi:10.1177/0971333615622893 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Conspiracy theories depict the out-group as collective enemies with hidden activities to exploit the in-group (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Kofta & Slawuta, 2013).”
Background
From socially motivated lay historians to lay censors: Epistemic conformity and defensive group identification
Klar, Y., & Bilewicz, M. (2017) · Memory Studies · doi:10.1177/1750698017701616 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…that included measures of narcissistic and secure identification (Golec de Zavala et al., 2013a) and secondary anti-Semitic beliefs about history (Bilewicz et al., 2013) showed that narcissistic identification led to greater anger toward those historians who revealed negative historical facts…”
Background
Contact with a multicultural past: A prejudice-reducing intervention
Stefaniak, A., & Bilewicz, M. (2015) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.11.004 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Economic freedom and antisemitism
Berggren, N., & Nilsson, T. (2020) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137420000466 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Does Belief in Conspiracy Theories Affect Interpersonal Relationships?
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2023.8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Furthermore, somework indicates that specific conspiracy theories can also evoke intergroup prejudice and discrimination against minority groups (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Kofta et al., 2020; Obaidi et al., 2022), as arguably occurred with COVID–19 conspiracy theories during the outbreak of the…”
Background
The Psychology of Collective Narcissism
de Zavala, A. G. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003296577 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Antisemitism on a California Campus: Perceptions and Views Among Students
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Love thy neighbor? The effects of religious in/out-group identity on social behavior
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Defining and explaining conspiracy theories: Comparing the lay representations of conspiracy believers and non-believers
Leveaux, S., Nera, K., Fagnoni, P., & Klein, P. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.6201 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“238) motivated by feelings of intergroup threat (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Uscinski & Parent, 2014; van Prooijen & van Lange, 2014).”
Background
We believe in your conspiracy if we distrust you: the role of intergroup distrust in structuring the effect of Islamic identification, competitive victimhood, and group incompatibility on belief in a conspiracy theory
Mashuri, A., & Esti Zaduqisti, C. (2014) · Journal of Tropical Psychology · doi:10.1017/jtp.2014.11 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Homeland Violence and Diaspora Insecurity: An Analysis of Israel and American Jewry
Feinberg, A. K. (2019) · Politics and Religion · doi:10.1017/s1755048319000099 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Anti-Semitic beliefs share both unique qualities as well as characteristics common in alternative types of intergroup hatred (Bilewicz et al. 2013, 822).”
Background
Social representations of the coronavirus and causal perception of its origin: The role of reasons for fear
Rateau, P., Tavani, J., & Delouvée, S. (2021) · Health An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health Illness and Medicine · doi:10.1177/13634593211005172 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Indeed, it is known that beliefs in conspiracy theories harbour intergroup categorization (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Kofta and Sedek, 2005).”
Background
A vicious circle? Longitudinal relationships between different modes of in-group identity and COVID-19 conspiracy thinking
Górska, P., Marchlewska, M., Szczepańska, D., Molenda, Z., Michalski, P., & Furman, A. (2022) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2022.2111250 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…& Jostmann, 2013; Whitson et al., 2015), powerlessness (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Jolley & Douglas, 2014b), feelings of relative deprivation (Bilewicz et al., 2013), threats to the fairness of the political system (Jolley et al., 2018), one’s feelings of self-worth (Cichocka, Marchlewska,…”
Conspiracy beliefs of Italian voters for populist parties: The moderated mediational role of political interest and ideological attitudes.
Salvati, M., Giacomantonio, M., Pellegrini, V., Cristofaro, V. D., & Leone, L. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103508 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
More than a prejudice reduction effect: Positive intergroup contact reduces conspiracy theory beliefs
Jolley, D., Seger, C. R., & Meleady, R. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2973 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Victims under Siege: Lessons for Polish–Jewish Relations and Beyond
Vollhardt, J. R., Bilewicz, M., & Olechowski, M. (2015) · Peace psychology book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17861-5_6 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
High‐Stakes Decision‐Making Within Complex Social Environments: A Computational Model of Belief Systems in the Arab Spring
Dornschneider, S. (2019) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12762 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…about subjects including ideology (Converse, 2006; Jost, 2006), right-wing authoritarianism (e.g., Crowson & DeBacker, 2008), prejudice and discrimination (e.g., Bilewicz et al., 2013), immigration (e.g., Bloom, Arikan & Courte-manche), or religious fundamentalism (e.g., Brandt & Tongeren, 2017).”
Background
Looking for Ties with Secret Agendas During the Pandemic: Conspiracy Mentality is Associated with Reduced Trust in Political, Medical, and Scientific Institutions – but Not in Medical Personnel
Nera, K., Mora, Y. L., Klein, P., Roblain, A., Oost, P. V., Terache, J., & Klein, O. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1086 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The social psychology of contemporary antisemitism
Jaspal, R. (2023) · Israel Affairs · doi:10.1080/13537121.2023.2166203 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Remember that we suffered!” The effects of historical trauma on anti‐Semitic prejudice
Skrodzka, M., Kende, A., Faragó, L., & Bilewicz, M. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12862 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Public sector corruption is fertile ground for conspiracy beliefs: A comparison between 26 Western and non‐Western countries
Cordonier, L., & Cafiero, F. (2024) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13374 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Left, the Right, Christians, Muslims and Detractors of Israel: Who is Antisemitic in Great Britain in the Early 21st Century?
Staetsky, L. (2020) · Contemporary Jewry · doi:10.1007/s12397-020-09335-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Онлайн-дейтинг: рынок или базар? Процесс поиска брачной пары на православном сайте знакомств
Galitsina, K., Kalinovskaya, P., & Khvorostianova, O. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-65-90 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Determinants of belief in conspiracy theories about the war in Ukraine among youth
Schuster, J., Fobel, L., & Kolleck, N. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12949 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Mindful-Gratitude Practice Reduces Prejudice at High Levels of Collective Narcissism
de Zavala, A. G., Keenan, O., Ziegler, M. D., Mazurkiewicz, M., Nalberczak‐Skóra, M., Ciesielski, P., Wahl, J. E., & Sedikides, C. (2024) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976231220902 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The role of perceived minority-group status in the conspiracy beliefs of factual majority groups
Gundersen, A., van der Linden, S., Piksa, M., Morzy, M., Piasecki, J., Rygula, R., Gwiaździński, P., Noworyta, K., & Kunst, J. R. (2023) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.221036 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Previous findings have shown that perceived ingroup disadvantage [38 – 40] and actively open-minded thinking (AOT) [41] are linked to susceptibility to misinformation.”
Influential
Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Spatial Inequality: the Case of Russian Education
Adamovich, K. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-147-161 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Upholding social hierarchies: Social dominance orientation moderates the link between (intergroup) conspiracy exposure and violent extremism
Schrader, T., Jolley, D., Jolley, R. P., & Krahenbuhl, S. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241247985 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Further, Jewish conspiracy theories in Poland were found to be the strongest predictor of anti-Semitic behavioural intentions, including not voting for a Jewish candidate or not being within close proximity of a Jewish person (Bilewicz et al., 2013).”
Engaging with Conspiracy Believers
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Toribio‐Flórez, D. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00741-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Developing Appreciative Attitudes Toward Jews: A Multi-Campus Investigation
Selznick, B. S., Mayhew, M. J., Dahl, L. S., & Rockenbach, A. N. (2021) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2021.1990632 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Relevant to our study, and drawing on similar theoretic paradigms (e.g., Dovidio et al., 2009), Bilewicz et al. (2013) quantitatively demonstrated potential linkages with respect to anti-Jewish attitudes.”
Method
The devil is not as black as he is painted? On the positive relationship between food industry conspiracy beliefs and conscious food choices
Marchlewska, M., Szczepańska, D., Karakula, A., Molenda, Z., Rogoza, M., & Maison, D. A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272737 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Belief in the Round Table conspiracy and political division in Poland
Kofta, M., & Soral, W. (2020) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.v14i4.2435 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Почему важна демография
Dorling, D., & Gietel‐Basten, S. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-36-64 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Verschwörungsmentalität und Antisemitismus
Imhoff, R. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-31701-0_4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The effects of higher-order human values and conspiracy beliefs on COVID-19-related behavior in Germany
Poier, S., & Suchanek, M. (2024) · Journal of public health · doi:10.1007/s10389-024-02210-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This applies to people who tend to be on the losing side, who come from ethnically disadvantaged groups, and/or who feel victimized (Bilewicz et al. 2013) but also to narcissistically inclined people who are looking for confirmation of their exaggerated self-image (Cichocka et al. 2016).”
The question‐behaviour effect in intergroup attitudes research: When do attitudes towards a minority predict a relevant behaviour?
Byrka, K., Grzyb, T., & Doliński, D. (2017) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12469 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Psychologia myślenia spiskowego
Grzesiak-Feldman, M. (2016) · Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego eBooks · doi:10.31338/uw.9788323522157 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
«3D-модель» российской экономики
Chepurenko, A. Y. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-118-128 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Verschwörungstheorien
Appel, M., & Mehretab, S. (2019) · Die Psychologie des Postfaktischen: Über Fake News, „Lügenpresse“, Clickbait & Co. · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58695-2_11 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Testing the link between conspiracy theories and violent extremism: a linguistic coding approach to far-right shooter manifestos
Vanderwee, J., & Droogan, J. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression · doi:10.1080/19434472.2023.2258952 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Belief in conspiracy theories featuring Jewish coalitions, for example, has been shown to correlate with higher levels of antisemitism (de Bilewicz et al., 2013; Zavala & Cichocka, 2012).”
Religiosität, Religion und Verschwörungsmentalität in der Covid-19-Pandemie
Pickel, G., Schneider, V., Pickel, S., Öztürk, C., & Decker, O. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Religion Gesellschaft und Politik · doi:10.1007/s41682-023-00163-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Antisemitische Ressentiments scheinen einen beachtlichen Teil an Verschwörungsmentalität aus-zumachen und sind mit ihnen verwoben (Heilbronn et al. 2019; Lipstadt 2019; Marzouki et al. 2016; auch für Polen: Bilewicz et al. 2013).”
Background
Conspiracy blaming in the aftermath of group relative deprivation: The moderating role of national narcissism
Bertin, P., Ionescu, O., Green, R., Abts, K., Rogenhofer, J. M., Delouvée, S., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Klein, O. (2024) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3093 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
How Are Conspiracy Beliefs Associated with Generosity?Preprint
Alper, S., Toribio‐Flórez, D., Douglas, K. M., & Capraro, V. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fdyxr · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Victims of Conspiracies? An Examination of the Relationship Between Conspiracy Beliefs and Dispositional Individual Victimhood
Toribio-Flórez, D., Altenmüller, M., Douglas, K. M., Gollwitzer, M., Adinugroho, I., Alfano, M., Apriliawati, D., Azevedo, F., Betsch, C., Białobrzeska, O., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.70008 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“One of these limitations is the conceptual overlap between the VJS scale and measures of relative deprivation (e.g., Callan et al. 2011; Obaidi et al. 2019), a construct known to correlate with conspiracy beliefs (e.g., Bilewicz et al. 2013; Gkinopoulos et al. 2023).”

Collective narcissism and anti-Semitism in Poland: mediating role of siege beliefs and conspiracy Jewish stereotype.
de Zavala, A. G., & Cichocka, A. K. (2009)
Explaining The Jew-Hatred The structure and psychological antecedents of antisemitic beliefs
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The Relationship Between Antisemitic Attitudes and Conspiracy Beliefs: A Cross-Sectional Study of UK-Resident Adults
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Authors: Bilewicz, M., Winiewski, M., Kofta, M., & Wójcik, A.
Affiliations: University of Warsaw
University of Warsaw (PL)
ORCID: Winiewski, Mikołaj
Kofta, Mirosław
Wójcik, Adrian
Venue: Political Psychology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2013-04
Volume: 34
Issue: 6
Pages: 821-839
ISSN: 0162-895X (ISSN-L)
1467-9221
DOI: 10.1111/pops.12024
OpenAlex: W1679463490
Cited by: 207
References: 72
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 3 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 15.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Political Psychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena
Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Religion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › German legal, social, and political studies
Keywords: anti-Jewish discrimination, Holocaust memory, authoritarian personality, relative deprivation

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Harmful Ideas, The Structure and Consequences of Anti‐S emitic Beliefs in P oland

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