What breeds conspiracy antisemitism? The role of political uncontrollability and uncertainty in the belief in Jewish conspiracy

Kofta, Mirosław; Soral, Wiktor; Bilewicz, Michał

doi:10.1037/pspa0000183

Cited by 182Misinformation and Its ImpactsSocial and Intergroup PsychologyReligion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity

What breeds conspiracy antisemitism? The role of political uncontrollability and uncertainty in the belief in Jewish conspiracy

Kofta, Mirosław, Soral, Wiktor, Bilewicz, Michał·2020·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/pspa0000183

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Abstract

Belief in conspiracy theories about Jews is a prototypical example of how a naïve theory can serve as a universal explanation of "all the bad things happening in society." Such a theory often arises in times of political unrest that tend to breed feelings of uncertainty in politics and a lack of control over politics. As both uncertainty (a sense-making deficit) and lack of control (an agency deficit) can relate to conspiracy-based antisemitism, this research examines which of the two processes plays a pivotal role in the belief in Jewish conspiracy. Specifically, we hypothesize that political uncontrollability, rather than political uncertainty, is a critical factor in triggering conspiracy theories about groups. In Study 1 (N = 812) we found that lack of control, but not uncertainty, in the political domain predicted belief in Jewish conspiracy, and subsequently led to increased discriminatory attitudes toward Jews. The results of longitudinal Study 2 (N = 476) revealed that only political uncontrollability led to an increase in conspiracy-related stereotypes of Jews. In Study 3 (N = 172) we found that experimental induction of political uncontrollability increased belief in Jewish, German, and Russian conspiracy, whereas induction of political uncertainty did not. Finally, Study 4 (N = 370) replicated this pattern in another cultural context with more general measures of uncontrollability and uncertainty. It was lack of personal control, rather than uncertainty, that increased belief in Jewish conspiracy-and indirectly predicted other conspiracy theories. Our findings consistently support the critical role of political uncontrollability, not uncertainty, in triggering a conspiracy theory of Jews. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

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Jewish conspiracy theory beliefs are related to prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people and several other outgroups.
“Jewish conspiracy theory beliefs are related to prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people [25][26][27][28] and several other outgroups [29**].”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [26]

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Robertson, C. E., Pretus, C., Rathje, S., Harris, E. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101423 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Historia est magistra vitae”? The impact of historical victimhood on current conspiracy beliefs
Pantazi, M., Gkinopoulos, T., Witkowska, M., Klein, O., & Bilewicz, M. (2020) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220968898 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“In conditions of uncertainty, people are generally more likely to endorse conspiracy theories (Kofta et al., 2020; Whitson et al., 2015), again suggesting that conspiracy thinking might be motivated by negative experiences linked to loss of control or uncertainty (Bilewicz & Sedek, 2015).”
Reasons to believe: A systematic review and meta-analytic synthesis of the motives associated with conspiracy beliefsPreprint
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Douglas, K. M., Azevedo, F., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rxjqc · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Investigating the identification-prejudice link through the lens of national narcissism: The role of defensive group beliefs
Bertin, P., Marinthe, G., Biddlestone, M., & Delouvée, S. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104252 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
An interpretation of meta-analytical evidence for the link between collective narcissism and conspiracy theories
de Zavala, A. G., Bierwiaczonek, K., & Ciesielski, P. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101360 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Suspecting Foul Play When It Is Objectively There: The Association of Political Orientation With General and Partisan Conspiracy Beliefs as a Function of Corruption Levels
Alper, S., & Imhoff, R. (2022) · Social Psychology and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506221113965 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“This added to a recent line of research focusing on how social factors such as corruption (Alper, 2021), inequality (Casara et al., 2022), precarity (Adam-Troian et al., 2021), and political control (Kofta et al., 2020) feed conspiracy beliefs.”
Background
Conspiracy beliefs as an adaptation to historical trauma
Bilewicz, M. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101359 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Is democracy under threat? Why belief in conspiracy theories predicts autocratic attitudes
Papaioannou, K., Pantazi, M., & van Prooijen, J. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2939 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The antidepressant hoax: Conspiracy theories decrease health‐seeking intentions
Natoli, E., & Marques, M. D. (2020) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12426 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Anxious and Angry: Emotional Responses to the COVID-19 Threat
Abadi, D., Arnaldo, I., & Fischer, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676116 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Stolen elections: How conspiracy beliefs during the 2020 American presidential elections changed over time
Wang, H., & van Prooijen, J. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3996 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Making an impression: The effects of sharing conspiracy theories
Green, R., Toribio-Flórez, D., Douglas, K. M., Brunkow, J. W., & Sutton, R. M. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104398 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Group-oriented motivations underlying conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241240696 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“This is for instance reflected in antisemitism (Golec de Zavala & Cichocka, 2012; Kofta et al., 2020) and prejudice towards immigrants (Jolley et al., 2020).”
Conspiracy theories as opportunistic attributions of power
Nera, K., Bertin, P., & Klein, O. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101381 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The complex relationship between conspiracy belief and the politics of social change
Federico, C. M. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101354 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hippies Next to Right-Wing Extremists?
Liekefett, L., Bürner, A.-K., & Becker, J. C. (2023) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000509 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Podcast acceptance for pedagogy: the levels and significant influences
Ifedayo, A. E., Ziden, A. B. A., & Ismail, A. B. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06442 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“For instance, the significant influence of political belief connotes the significant impact (Kofta et al., 2020).”
Background
The Creativity of Conspiracy Theories
Bonetto, É., & Arciszewski, T. (2021) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.497 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Are Christian nationalists antisemitic and why?
Dennen, J., & Djupe, P. A. (2023) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13248 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Disinformation networks: A quali-quantitative investigation of antagonistic Dutch-speaking Telegram channels
Willaert, T., Peeters, S., Seijbel, J., & Raemdonck, N. V. (2022) · First Monday · doi:10.5210/fm.v27i5.12533 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Antecedent Ideological Profiles and Negative Socio-political Outcomes of LGBTQ+ Conspiracy Beliefs
Salvati, M., Pellegrini, V., Cristofaro, V. D., Costacurta, M., & Giacomantonio, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research & Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-024-00949-w · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…dealt with general CTBs or COVID-19 CTBs (Giacomantonio et al., 2022), climate change CTBs (Biddlestone et al., 2022), and CTBs related to Jewes or other social groups (Kofta et al., 2020), research that has focused on LGBTQ+ CTBs is very scarce (Bettinsoli et al., 2022; Salvati et al., 2023a, b).”
Hate Speech in a Telegram Conspiracy Channel During the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Vergani, M., Arranz, A. M., Scrivens, R., & Orellana, L. (2022) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051221138758 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“For example, previous research has examined conspiracy theories promoting hate against the Jews via centuries-old tropes like the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (Bronner, 2003; Kofta et al., 2020).”
Does Belief in Conspiracy Theories Affect Interpersonal Relationships?
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2023.8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…indicates that specific conspiracy theories can also evoke intergroup prejudice and discrimination against minority groups (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Kofta et al., 2020; Obaidi et al., 2022), as arguably occurred with COVID–19 conspiracy theories during the outbreak of the pandemic (e.g., Moonshot,…”
Background
Negativity bias in the spread of voter fraud conspiracy theory tweets during the 2020 US election
Youngblood, M., Stubbersfield, J., Morin, O., Glassman, R., & Acerbi, A. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02106-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…with reduced engagement with mainstream politics (Imhoff et al., 2020; Jolley & Douglas, 2014), increased support for political violence and extremism (Imhoff et al., 2020; Uscinski & Parent, 2014), and increased prejudice towards minority groups (Jolley et al., 2020; Kofta et al., 2020).”
Background
The Psychology of Collective Narcissism
de Zavala, A. G. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003296577 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Identifying important individual‐ and country‐level predictors of conspiracy theorizing: A machine learning analysis
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., van Lissa, C. V., Stroebe, W., Kreienkamp, J., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J., Gützkow, B., Abakoumkin, G., Khaiyom, J. H. A., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2968 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Defining and explaining conspiracy theories: Comparing the lay representations of conspiracy believers and non-believers
Leveaux, S., Nera, K., Fagnoni, P., & Klein, P. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.6201 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“CT beliefs are associated with feelings of loss of political control (Kofta et al., 2020), distrust of political authorities (Nera et al.”
Background
The Yellow Vests in France: Psychosocial Determinants and Consequences of the Adherence to a Social Movement in a Representative Sample of the Population
Wagner-Egger, P., Adam-Troian, J., Cordonier, L., Cafiero, F., & Bronner, G. (2022) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.556 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A vicious circle? Longitudinal relationships between different modes of in-group identity and COVID-19 conspiracy thinking
Górska, P., Marchlewska, M., Szczepańska, D., Molenda, Z., Michalski, P., & Furman, A. (2022) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2022.2111250 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…research explored conspiracy beliefs in relation to general and attachment anxiety (Green & Douglas, 2018; Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013), lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008), maladaptive coping with stress (Marchlewska, Green et al., 2022); uncertainty (Marchlewska et al.,…”
Sense of control and conspiracy perceptions: Generative directions on a well-worn path
Dow, B. J., Menon, T., Wang, C. S., & Whitson, J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101389 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The social psychology of contemporary antisemitism
Jaspal, R. (2023) · Israel Affairs · doi:10.1080/13537121.2023.2166203 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Polacy wobec Ukraińców: Wyniki badań sondażowych zrealizowanych po inwazji rosyjskiej na Ukrainę w 2022 roku
Babińska, M., Bilewicz, M., Górska, P., Toruńczyk‐Ruiz, S., & Wypych, M. (2022) · Nauka · doi:10.24425/nauka.2022.142919 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The dark side of social movements: Social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theoriesPreprint
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A. K., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wvqes · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“For instance, Jewish conspiracy theory beliefs are related to prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people [25-28] and several other outgroups [29**].”
Background
Who needs control? A cultural perspective on the process of compensatory control
Gibbs, W. C., Kim, H. S., Kay, A. C., & Sherman, D. K. (2022) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12722 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…the role of uncertainty and personal control are important, and may vary by domain: in the political domain, for example, uncertainty was less associated with conspiracy theorizing (which is posited as a way of imposing structure on the world) than was loss of personal control (Kofta et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Authoritarians and “revolutionaries in reverse”: Why collective narcissism threatens democracy
de Zavala, A. G. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241240689 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“[Please note edit] Polish collective narcissism has been linked to anti-Semitism and endorsement of conspirato-rial stereotyping of Jews (Golec de Zavala, 2020, 2023; Kofta et al., 2020).”
Walk This Way: Ingroup Norms Determine Voting Intentions for Those Who Lack Sociopolitical Control
Potoczek, A., Bukowski, M., de Lemus, S., Jiménez‐Moya, G., Rodríguez-López, Á., & Jaśko, K. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672211070070 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Importantly, our findings suggest that negative consequences of sociopolitical uncontrollability (e.g., Kofta et al., 2020) can be potentially avoided when people are surrounded by positive ingroup norms.”
Background
“Remember that we suffered!” The effects of historical trauma on anti‐Semitic prejudice
Skrodzka, M., Kende, A., Faragó, L., & Bilewicz, M. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12862 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Religious Fundamentalism, Delusions, and Conspiracy Beliefs Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic
Sobol, M., Zajenkowski, M., & Jankowski, K. S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159597 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Among the important factors predisposing people to endorse conspiracy theories, researchers typically name perceived powerlessness [23], lack of control [24], and uncertainty [25].”
Background
Belief in conspiracy theories and satisfaction in interpersonal relationships
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., & Douglas, K. M. (2024) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13061 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Anti-establishment sentiments: realistic and symbolic threat appraisals predict populist attitudes and conspiracy mentality
Abadi, D., van Prooijen, J. W., Krouwel, A., & Fischer, A. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2360584 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Threats have also been linked to increased conspi-racy beliefs (for overviews, see Douglas et al., 2019; Jolley et al., 2018; Kofta et al., 2020; Poon et al., 2020; Van Prooijen, 2020; Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015), but no studies to date have explicitly distinguished between different forms of…”
Théories du complot et COVID-19 : comment naissent les croyances complotistes ?
Bottemanne, H. (2022) · L'Encephale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2021.12.005 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Cette approche est intéressante dans le contexte du comploisme car plusieurs études en psychologie sociale ont montré ue les croyances individuelles sur l’incapacité à contrôler son nvironnement (par exemple, à avoir la capacité d’agir sur les hénomènes qui nous importune) étaient directement associées l’émergence de…”
What do we manipulate when reminding people of (not) having control? In search of construct validity
Bukowski, M., Potoczek, A., Barzykowski, K., Lautenbacher, J. M., & Inzlicht, M. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02326-8 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…it might induce the need to boost one’s positive self-view and to reaffirm the agency of one-self or the ingroup, (e.g., by enhancing ingroup-bias, blaming others, or search for conspiracy theories; Bukowski, de Lemus, et al., 2017; Fritsche et al., ; Kofta et al., 2020; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008).”
Background
Engaging with Conspiracy Believers
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Toribio‐Flórez, D. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00741-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Belief in the Round Table conspiracy and political division in Poland
Kofta, M., & Soral, W. (2020) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.v14i4.2435 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
What Drives Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories? Examining the Role of Uncertainty, Negative Emotions, and Perceived Relevance and Threat
Lee, T., & Koo, G. H. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2022.2134703 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“While studies suggest that beliefs in conspiracy theories are likely driven by “epistemic motives” to alleviate the uncertainty (Gligorić et al., 2021), the evidence of the direct relationship between uncertainty and conspiracy beliefs is mixed (Kofta et al., 2020; Van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013).”
Background
Making Sense of Jiese: An Interview Study of Members from a Porn-Free Self-Help Forum in China
Zou, W., Zhang, X., & He, J. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-022-02456-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Notably, the sentiments of anxieties mentioned previously and the conspiracy theory were simultaneously presented in participants’ narratives, echoing previous research that jieyou’s conspiracy belief was closely connected with the feelings of powerlessness (Goertzel, 1994) and lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020).”
Result
Buying to Cope With Scarcity During Public Emergencies: A Serial Mediation Model Based on Cognition-Affect Theory
Ma, X., & Liao, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.791850 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Alternative beliefs in psychedelic drug users
Lebedev, A. V., Acar, K., Horntvedt, O., Cabrera, A., Simonsson, O., Osika, W., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42444-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs and democratic backsliding: Longitudinal effects of election conspiracy beliefs on criticism of democracy and support for authoritarianism during political contests
Thomas, E. F., O'Donnell, A. W., Osborne, D., Bird, L. H., Yip, L., Buonaiuto, E., Lizzio‐Wilson, M., Skitka, L. J., & Wenzel, M. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13075 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Conspiracy theories flourish when there is a sense of uncon-trollability (Kofta et al., 2020), and rapid societal changes provide particularly fertile grounds for their proliferation (van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017).”
How Does Social Class Affect Need for Structure during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Moderated Mediating Model Analysis
Rao, T., Yang, S., & Zhu, X. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020932 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Especially in the context of uncertainty, need for structure can be regarded as the psychological basis of many psychological and behavioral factors, such as conspiracy theory thinking [49] and stereotyping [23].”
Background
Political affiliation moderates subjective interpretations of COVID-19 graphs
Ericson, J. D., Albert, W., & Duane, J.-N. (2022) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517221080678 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…if their way of life is being threatened (Blumenthal-Barby and Burroughs, 2012), which can lead to selfish or panicked behavior (O’Keefe and Reid, 1990), self-isolation (Graeupner and Coman, 2017), prejudices (Kofta et al., 2020), or blaming others for negative outcomes (Douglas et al., 2017).”
Background
I need some answers, now!: Present time perspective is associated with holding conspiracy beliefs
Zajenkowski, M., Górniak, J., Wojnarowski, K., Sobol, M., & Jonason, P. K. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111723 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Moreover, they share several common correlates like perceived powerlessness (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Parsons et al., 1999), lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020; Leiser et al., 2017), uncertainty (Hollander, 2018; Van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013), religious fundamentalism (Boguszewski et al.,…”
Background
Of Precarity and Conspiracy: Introducing A Socio-Functional Model of Conspiracy BeliefsPreprint
Adam‐Troian, J., Chayinska, M., Paladino, M. P., Uluğ, Ö. M., Vaes, J., & Wagner‐Egger, P. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mnfrd · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Stronger Conspiracy Beliefs Are Associated With a Stronger Tendency to Act Dishonestly and an Overestimation of Others’ Dishonesty
Alper, S., Toribio‐Flórez, D., Capraro, V., & Douglas, K. M. (2024) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506241302878 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The higher-order social factors that undermine trust, such as corruption (Alper, 2023), inequality (Casara et al., 2022), and lack of political control (Kofta et al., 2020) are also associated with stronger conspiracy beliefs.”
Online Misinformation and “Phantom Patterns”: Epistemic Exploitation in the Era of Big Data
Fritts, M., & Cabrera, F. (2021) · The Southern Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1111/sjp.12451 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Conspiracy Theories about Infectious Diseases: An Introduction
Hong, Y.-Y., Chan, H.-W., & Douglas, K. M. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211057657 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Research studies have revealed that feelings of anxiety, powerlessness, and lack of sociopolitical control are related to stronger conspiracy beliefs (e.g., Bruder et al., 2013; Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013; Kofta et al., 2020).”
Background
Deconstructing the Conspiratorial Mind: the Computational Logic Behind Conspiracy Theories
Rigoli, F. (2022) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-022-00657-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The role of expected consequences postulated by the CMCT offers an interpretation of empirical evidence showing that anxiety and lack of control encourage support of conspiracy theories (Bruder et al. 2013; Douglas et al. 2017; Grzesiak-Feldman 2013; Kofta et al. 2020).”
Background
Curious about threats: Morbid curiosity and interest in conspiracy theories in US adults
Scrivner, C., & Stubbersfield, J. (2023) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12682 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Prolonged unemployment is associated with control loss and personal as well as social disengagement
Soral, W., Bukowski, M., Bilewicz, M., Cichocka, A. K., Lewczuk, K., Marchlewska, M., Rabinovitch, A., Rędzio, A. M., Skrodzka, M., & Kofta, M. (2024) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12967 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Going beyond simplicity: Using machine learning to predict belief in conspiracy theories
Brandenstein, N. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2859 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Enemy of ‘Ummah: Belief in anti-Semitic conspiracy theories indirectly affected vaccination decisionsPreprint
Zein, R. A., Ridlo, I. A., Arinda, M. F., & Rikardi, A. A. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/53qsk · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Following the COVID19 playbook and battling another infodemic: Conspiracy beliefs around human Monkeypox among the Lebanese populationPreprint
Youssef, D., Abboud, E., & Bleibel, L. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2020448/v1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hidden in plain sight: antisemitic content in QAnon subreddits
Weinberg, D. B., Levy, M. D., Edwards, A., Kopstein, J. S., Frey, D., Antonaros, P., Baci, N., Cohen, N. D., Fernandez, J. A., & Ni, Y. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0318988 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs explain why intolerance of uncertainty, personal control, and political uncontrollability predict willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19
Alfasi, Y. (2023) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2023.2286592 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Political Uncontrollability was assessed with items from Kofta et al.‘s (2020) study.”
Influential
How belief in conspiracy theories could harm sustainability
van Prooijen, J., Šrol, J., & Maglić, M. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02243-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
An interpretation of meta-analytical evidence for the link between collective narcissism and conspiracy theoriesPreprint
de Zavala, A. G., Bierwiaczonek, K., & Ciesielski, P. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2rku3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Content Moderation and Hate Speech on Alternative Platforms: A Case Study of BitChute
Erickson, J., & Yan, B. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3710950 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There is a long history of accusing Jews of controlling governments and media [35], and the implementation of what is perceived as a top-down censorship policy may stoke these troubling beliefs.”
Let’s take back control: Disentangling and integrating group-based and certainty-based social responses to threatened personal control
Fritsche, I., Lautenbacher, J. M., & Masson, T. (2025) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2025.2509465 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Following the COVID-19 playbook and battling another infodemic: conspiracy beliefs around human monkeypox among the Lebanese population
Youssef, D., Bleibel, L., & Abboud, E. (2023) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Policy and Practice · doi:10.1186/s40545-023-00580-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Epistemic need referred to people’s motivation to maintain certainty, consistency, and accuracy in their understanding of the world [10, 11].”
Background
Conspiracy and Antisemitism in Contemporary Political Attitudes
Lewis, J. S. (2025) · Political research quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129251318350 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Kofta, Soral, and Bilewicz (2020) ﬁ nd that it is political uncontrollability rather than uncertainty that increases belief in antisemitic conspiracies.”
Conspiracy Theories and Muslim Brotherhood Antisemitism under Sadat
Santing, K. M. (2022) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel13020143 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Weimar, Hitler und „die Deutschen“ – ein sozialpsychologisches Bedingungssystem
Frey, D., Rez, H., & Hehnen, M. M. (2022) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000556 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Inequality, Military Veteran Transitions, and Beyond: Compensatory Control Theory and Its Application to Real World Social Justice Problems
Kay, A. C., & Gibbs, W. C. (2022) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-021-00385-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“, 2014), gun policies (Shepherd & Kay, 2018), antisemitism (Kofta et al., 2020), acceptance of Covid-19 interventions (Wnuk et al.”
Background
How perceived coercion polarizes unvaccinated people: The mediating role of conspiracy beliefs
Wang, H., van Prooijen, J., & van Lange, P. (2024) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053241238126 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Such feelings of uncontrollability and lack of power are associated with increased conspiracy beliefs (Kofta et al., 2020; Kossowska and Bukowski, 2015; Van Prooijen and Acker, 2015; Van Prooijen and Van Lange, 2014).”
The social psychology of conspiracy theories: Key insights and future challenges
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2025) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.10.004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Over de gevolgen van de coronacrisis voor beroepsonzekerheid, politieke machteloosheid en het geloof in samenzweringen
de Witte, H., Roll, L., & van Hootegem, A. (2021) · Gedrag & Organisatie · doi:10.5117/go2021.3.005.witt · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Conspiracy Theories: A Cultural Evolution Theory approachPreprint
Stubbersfield, J. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/hqkju · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Conspiracy Theories as Opportunistic Attributions of PowerPreprint
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Dilling, M., Sorrentino, A., Brähler, E., Fegert, J. M., & Decker, O. (2025) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.70009 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Authors: Kofta, M., Soral, W., & Bilewicz, M.
Affiliations: University of Warsaw (PL)
ORCID: Kofta, Mirosław
Soral, Wiktor
Bilewicz, Michał
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2020-05
Volume: 118
Issue: 5
Pages: 900-918
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000183
OpenAlex: W3000531909
Cited by: 182
References: 75
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 14
FWCI: 36.70
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Centre (DEC-2014/15/G/HS6/04589, UMO-2014/15/B/HS6/-03755)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Religion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity
Keywords: conspiracy theories, antisemitism, Jewish conspiracy, political uncertainty, political unrest, naive theories
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Jews, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Politics, Prejudice, Uncertainty

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What breeds conspiracy antisemitism? The role of political uncontrollability and uncertainty in the belief in Jewish conspiracy

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