MAIT cells are imprinted by the microbiota in early life and promote tissue repair
Open accessAbstract
Commensals rule the MAITrix: Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells play an important role in mucosal homeostasis. MAIT cells recognize microbial small molecules presented by the major histocompatibility complex class Ib molecule MR1. MAIT cells are absent in germ-free mice, and the mechanisms by which microbiota control MAIT cell development are unknown (see the Perspective by Oh and Unutmaz). Legoux et al. show that, in mice, development of MAIT cells within the thymus is governed by the bacterial product 5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6- d -ribitylaminouracil, which rapidly traffics from the mucosa to the thymus, where it is captured by MR1 and presented to developing MAIT cells. Constantinides et al. report that MAIT cell induction only occurs during a limited, early-life window and requires exposure to defined microbes that produce riboflavin derivatives. Continual interactions between MAIT cells and commensals in the skin modulates tissue repair functions. Together, these papers highlight how the microbiota can direct immune cell development and subsequent function at mucosal sites by secreting compounds that act like self-antigens. Science , this issue p. 494 , p. eaax6624 ; see also p. 419
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
MAIT cells require a narrow early-life window of microbial exposure, especially riboflavin-synthesizing bacteria, to establish long-term tissue populations. In adult skin, these cells become a dominant IL-17A-producing, tissue-resident subset that responds to commensal antigens and cytokines and accelerates wound repair in mice.
Key findings
- MAIT cells were enriched in mouse skin, reaching up to 40% of αβ T cells, and averaged about 2% of CD3+ lymphocytes in human skin; germ-free mice had reduced MAIT cells across thymus, spleen, gut, skin, lungs, and liver.
- A defined five-species early-life community, or monocolonization with *Proteus mirabilis* alone, restored MAIT cell development in neonatal germ-free mice, whereas later-life exposure or adult conventionalization did not; topical 5-OP-RU also induced skin MAIT cells only when given early.
- Cutaneous MAIT cells were mostly double-negative, produced IL-17A rather than IFNγ, expressed type-17 genes including *Rorc*, *Il22*, *Il1r1*, and *Il23r*, and showed a tissue-repair transcriptional signature; IL-23 receptor deficiency reduced MAIT cell numbers, IL-18 blockade limited their expansion after *S. epidermidis*, and IL-1 receptor deficiency reduced IL-17A production.
- *S. epidermidis* lacking *ribD* failed to expand MAIT cells, while inducible MR1 deletion after development did not affect steady-state MAIT cells but prevented their response to *S. epidermidis*; in wounding experiments, MAIT-sufficient *Tcrd−/−* mice had longer epidermal tongues than MAIT-deficient *Mr1−/− Tcrd−/−* mice, and topical 5-OP-RU increased epidermal tongue length in wild-type mice.
Methods
- Mouse immunology study using SPF, germ-free, gnotobiotic, knockout, transgenic, parabiosis, and wound-healing models; early-life colonization was performed by oral gavage or topical skin association, with 16S rRNA sequencing and bacterial whole-genome sequencing to characterize communities and riboflavin synthesis genes.
- Immune populations were analyzed by flow cytometry, MR1 tetramer enrichment, confocal microscopy, RNA-sequencing, and single-cell RNA-sequencing; human skin specimens from elective surgery were digested and analyzed for MAIT cell frequency.
- Statistical comparisons used two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-tests; RNA-seq differential expression used DESeq2 with GO enrichment via Metascape, and scRNA-seq used Cell Ranger, CITE-seq-Count, and Seurat.
Limitations
- The paper states that how microbiota-derived riboflavin intermediates before and after birth contribute to human MAIT cell maturation and long-term tissue imprinting remains to be addressed.
- The functional wound-healing evidence is from murine punch-biopsy experiments, and MAIT cell function was tested in *Tcrd−/−* mice to reduce competition from γδ T cells, a setting the authors note is more relevant to human skin because human skin has fewer γδ T cells than mouse skin.
- Evident from the text: human data are limited mainly to skin MAIT cell frequency, and the study relies heavily on specific mouse models, defined bacterial strains, and early-life colonization conditions, so direct human causal tests of MAIT cell function are not provided.
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- Findingown data
A defined five-species early-life microbial community given to neonatal GF mice at weeks 1, 2, and 3 induces MAIT cell development to the same extent as in SPF mice with high MAIT cell frequencies.
“The colonization of neonatal GF mice with our early-life microbial community induced MAIT cell development to the same extent observed in SPF mice harboring high MAIT cell frequencies (Fig. 1I).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Monocolonization of neonatal GF mice with P. mirabilis, but not L. johnsonii, is sufficient to drive MAIT cell development.
“Indeed, the monocolonization of neonatal GF mice with P. mirabilis, but not L. johnsonii, was sufficient to drive MAIT cell development (Fig. 1K).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Topical application of 5-OP-RU to the skin of adult GF mice fails to induce MAIT cells.
“In agreement with our observation that adult microbial colonization was insufficient to promote MAIT cell development (Fig. 1I), topical application of 5-OP-RU to the skin of adult GF mice failed to induce MAIT cells (Fig. 1L).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cutaneous MAIT cells display a markedly different transcriptional profile from MAIT cells in other tissues by single-cell RNA sequencing.
“Cutaneous MAIT cells displayed a markedly different transcriptional profile (Figs. 2I–J & S2F–G).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cutaneous MAIT cells express a transcriptional profile consistent with T cell activation, including leukocyte differentiation, migration, cell adhesion, cytokine production, and the ERK1/2 cascade.
“Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that cutaneous MAIT cells express a transcriptional profile consistent with T cell activation, including leukocyte differentiation, migration and cell adhesion, cytokine production, and the ERK1/2 cascade, which is downstream of TCR signaling (Fig. 2C).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
IL-23 receptor-deficient mice have fewer MAIT cells than wild-type animals.
“IL-23 receptor-deficient mice (Il23rgfp/gfp) exhibited fewer MAIT cells than WT animals (Figs. 2F–G & S2D–E)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
IL-1 receptor-deficient mice show significantly decreased MAIT cell production of IL-17A.
“their ability to produce IL-17A was significantly decreased (Fig. 3N–O).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cutaneous MAIT cells express multiple genes associated with tissue repair, including Lgals3, F2r, Sdc1, and Npnt.
“Additionally, scRNA-seq confirmed that cutaneous MAIT cells express multiple genes associated with tissue repair, including Lgals3, F2r, Sdc1, and Npnt (Fig. 2J).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
S. epidermidis association promotes expression of angiogenesis genes Ang and Hgf and tissue repair genes Ceacam1, Grn, Hmox1, Igf1, and Pdgfa.
“S. epidermidis association promoted the expression of genes associated specifically with angiogenesis, including angiogenin (Ang) and Hgf (47, 48), as well as genes that more broadly promote tissue repair, like Ceacam1, Grn, Hmox1, Igf1, and Pdgfa (49–53) (Fig. 3R).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked- cites [47] Bussolino F, Hepatocyte growth factor is a potent angiogenic factor which stimulates endothelial cell motility and growth. J Cell Biol 119, 629– 641 (1992). 1383237 PMC2289675 source
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Not checked in the free run.
- cites [49] Toulon A, A role for human skin-resident T cells in wound healing. J Exp Med 206, 743– 750 (2009). 19307328 PMC2715110 source
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Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
Exposure to the five-species community later in life does not promote MAIT cell development or accumulation in tissues.
“Conversely, exposure later in life failed to promote MAIT cell development and accumulation within tissues (Fig. 1H–I)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cutaneous MAIT cells express type-17-associated transcripts including Il22, Rorc, Il1r1, and Il23r.
“Consistent with their IL-17A potential, MAIT cells expressed type-17-associated transcripts, including Il22 and Rorc, the gene for the transcription factor RORγt, as well as Il1r1 and Il23r, which encode receptors for interleukins IL-1 and IL-23, respectively (Fig. 2D).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Segmented filamentous bacteria fail to induce MAIT cells in GF mice.
“Segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB), a known inducer of Th17 cells that lacks riboflavin synthesis enzymes (Figs. 1J & S1G) (29, 30), also failed to induce MAIT cells (Fig. 1K).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [29] Ivanov II, Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria. Cell 139, 485– 498 (2009). 19836068 PMC2796826 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [30] Gaboriau-Routhiau V, The key role of segmented filamentous bacteria in the coordinated maturation of gut helper T cell responses. Immunity 31, 677– 689 (2009). 19833089 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
MAIT cells from the skin, lungs, and gut are almost exclusively double-negative.
“We found that MAIT cells from the skin and other barrier sites, such as the lungs and gut, were almost exclusively DN (Fig. 2H).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Cutaneous MAIT cells are enriched in gene ontology terms associated with tissue repair.
“Intriguingly, MAIT cells were also enriched in GO terms associated with tissue repair (Fig. 2C)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In mice with high MAIT cell frequencies, MAIT cells account for the largest proportion of IL-17A+ αβ T cells in the skin.
“As such, in mice with high MAIT cell frequencies, MAIT cells accounted for the largest proportion of IL-17A+ αβ T cells (Fig. 2B)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Neutralization of IL-18 significantly reduces the MAIT cell response to S. epidermidis association.
“Neutralization of IL-18 significantly reduced the MAIT cell response to S. epidermidis association (Fig. 3J–L)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The microbiota is necessary for MAIT cells in the thymus, spleen, gut, skin, lungs, and liver.
“A comparison of mice housed in conventional specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions to germ-free (GF) animals confirmed previous observations that the microbiota is necessary for the presence of MAIT cells in the thymus, spleen, and gut (17, 18), and extended this requirement for MAIT cells in the skin, lungs, and liver (Fig. 1B).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [17] Treiner E, Selection of evolutionarily conserved mucosal-associated invariant T cells by MR1. Nature 422, 164– 169 (2003). 12634786 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [18] Koay HF, A three-stage intrathymic development pathway for the mucosal-associated invariant T cell lineage. Nat Immunol 17, 1300– 1311 (2016). 27668799 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
MAIT cells express the highest levels of IL-23R among αβ T cells.
“MAIT cells expressed the highest levels of IL-23R among αβ T cells (Fig. 2E)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
MAIT cells predominantly reside near the interface of the dermis and epidermis, close to the basal layer.
“found that MAIT cells predominantly resided near the interface of the dermis and epidermis, in close proximity to the basal layer (Fig. 5A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Topical application of 5-OP-RU to SPF mice significantly increases cutaneous IL-17A+ MAIT cells with minimal effects on other T cell subsets.
“Application of antigen alone resulted in a significant increase of cutaneous IL-17A+ MAIT cells, with minimal effects on other T cells subsets (Figs. 4D–H & S4D–E).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Riboflavin synthesis is highly conserved among skin commensals.
“Although the intestine harbors multiple bacterial families that are unable to generate riboflavin, riboflavin synthesis is highly conserved among skin commensals (Fig. 4A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
MR1-mediated antigen presentation is required for the MAIT cell response to S. epidermidis.
“Tamoxifen treatment a week prior to the S. epidermidis association revealed that MR1-mediated antigen presentation is required for the MAIT cell response (Figs. 4I–J & S4R–S).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
MAIT cells respond to skin commensals locally, either through antigen recognition and/or cytokine stimulation.
“This suggested that MAIT cells respond to skin commensals locally, either via antigen recognition and/or cytokine stimulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
In the context of homeostatic responses to the microbiota, the MAIT cell response is strictly TCR-dependent.
“our results support the idea that in the context of homeostatic responses to the microbiota, the MAIT cell response is strictly TCR-dependent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
MAIT cells promote tissue repair in the absence of compensatory responses by γδ T cells.
“indicating that MAIT cells promote tissue repair in the absence of compensatory responses by γδ T cells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Production of riboflavin intermediates by S. epidermidis is required for local MAIT cell activation.
“Thus, these results support the idea that production of riboflavin intermediates by S. epidermidis is required for local MAIT cell activation”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The microbially derived antigen 5-OP-RU is sufficient to promote wound healing in an intact host.
“demonstrating that the microbially derived antigen 5-OP-RU was sufficient to promote wound healing in an intact host.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 16
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataGenetically identical SPF mice housed in different cages show wide variation in skin MAIT cell proportion, while mice in the same cage have similar frequencies.
“Although MAIT cells were highly abundant within the skin, WT SPF mice housed in distinct cages showed striking variability in the proportion of MAIT cells among genetically identical animals, ranging from <5%−40% of αβ T cells (Fig. 1D–E). In contrast, animals in the same cage had similar frequencies of MAIT cells in the skin and other organs (Fig. 1E)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMAIT cells are highly enriched in mouse skin, where they can make up as much as 40% of αβ T cells.
“This analysis revealed that MAIT cells were highly enriched in the skin (Fig. 1B–C), where they comprised up to 40% of αβ T cells (Fig. 1D–E).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataTopical application of 5-OP-RU to the skin of GF mice beginning at one week of age significantly increases skin MAIT cell numbers without promoting other T cell subsets.
“Topical application of 5-OP-RU was sufficient to induce a significant increase in the number of MAIT cells within the skin (Fig. 1L), without promoting the accumulation of other T cell subsets (Fig. S1J).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMAIT cells are enriched in human skin compared with peripheral blood, averaging about 2% of CD3+ lymphocytes.
“Furthermore, MAIT cells were also enriched in human skin compared to the reported ~1% in peripheral blood (20), averaging ~2% of CD3+ lymphocytes (Fig. 1F).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFollowing stimulation, skin MAIT cells robustly produce IL-17A but not IFNγ.
“Following stimulation, skin MAIT cells robustly produced IL-17A, but not IFNγ (Fig. 2A)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataTopical association with S. epidermidis expands the cutaneous double-negative MAIT cell population and increases their IL-17A production.
“we observed that in both cases, topical association expanded the cutaneous DN MAIT cell population and increased their production of IL-17A (Figs. 3A–D & S3B–D).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAssociation with the S. epidermidis ΔribD mutant fails to induce a MAIT cell response, while CD8+ and γδ T cell responses are conserved.
“association with the S. epidermidis ΔribD mutant failed to induce a MAIT cell response (Fig. 4C), even though the CD8+ and γδ T cell responses were conserved (Fig. S4B–C).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataEarly-life exposure to commensals that produce defined metabolites, or to microbially derived metabolites alone, is required for MAIT cell development and for their presence later in life.
“Thus, early-life exposure to commensals that produce defined metabolites, or to microbially derived metabolites alone, is required for MAIT cell development and their presence later in life.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataHomeostatic IL-23 contributes to MAIT cell development and/or accumulation within tissues.
“supporting the idea that homeostatic IL-23 contributes to MAIT cell development and/or accumulation within tissues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataMicrobial exposure in early life is required for the development of tissue MAIT cells, but not for thymic developmental stages.
“indicating that microbial exposure in early life is required for the development of tissue MAIT cells, but not the thymic developmental stages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenIn the reported mouse experiments, mice were matched for age and sex and were between 6 and 12 weeks old unless stated otherwise.
“Unless otherwise noted, age- and sex-matched mice between 6 and 12 weeks of age were used for each experiment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenDead cells were excluded from flow cytometric analyses using DAPI for live samples and LIVE/DEAD or Ghost Dye Violet 510 for fixed samples.
“Dead cells were excluded from live samples using 4′, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindol (DAPI; Sigma-Aldrich), whereas either LIVE/DEAD Fixable Blue Dead Cell Stain Kit (Invitrogen Life Technologies) or Ghost Dye Violet 510 (Tonbo Biosciences) was used in fixed samples.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataFor single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis, only singlets were retained, leaving 585 cells.
“HTO were read in and assigned to the single cells and only singlets were used for further analysis leaving 585 cells.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataMAIT cells are induced during a specific early-life window in response to riboflavin-synthesizing commensals, and this permanently imprints the abundance of this subset in tissues.
“Notably, we show that MAIT cells are induced during a specific early-life window in response to riboflavin-synthesizing commensals, a phenomenon that permanently imprints the abundance of this subset in tissues.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe S. epidermidis ribD deletion mutants used were verified by colony PCR and sequencing.
“Successful knockouts were confirmed by colony PCR and sequencing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenFlow cytometric staining was performed in the presence of purified anti-mouse CD16/32 and purified rat gamma globulin.
“All staining was performed in the presence of purified anti-mouse CD16/32 and purified rat gamma globulin (Jackson ImmunoResearch).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataγδ T cells restrict the MAIT cell population at steady state and constrain their response to commensals.
“Therefore, γδ T cells restrict the MAIT cell population at steady-state and constrain their response to commensals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataIn single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis, cells were filtered to retain those with 900-3,000 gene counts, no more than 5% mitochondrial contamination, and no more than 10,000 RNA counts, leaving 5,678 cells.
“Cells with less than 900 or more than 3,000 gene counts, more than 5% mitochondrial contamination, or more than 10,000 RNA counts were filtered out, leaving 5,678 cells for downstream analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenA central strategy by which the immune system interacts with the microbiota may be recognition of canonical microbially derived antigens by unconventional T cells, including MAIT cells, and this dialogue may play a dominant role in controlling host physiology.
“In conclusion, our work proposes that a central strategy utilized by the immune system to interact with the microbiota may be via the recognition of canonical microbially derived antigens by unconventional T cells, including MAIT cells, a dialogue that may play a dominant role in the control of host physiology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Human T cells develop in utero.
“In contrast to mice, human T cells develop in utero supporting the hypothesis that such early MAIT cell imprinting may occur prior to birth.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The development and maturation of MAIT cells are dependent on microbiota, as demonstrated by reduced numbers of MAIT cells in GF mice, which can be restored through microbial colonization.
“The development and maturation of MAIT cells are dependent on microbiota, as demonstrated by reduced numbers of MAIT cells in GF mice, which can be restored through microbial colonization.”
From Microbiota–gut–brain axis and its therapeutic applications in neurodegenerative diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [693]
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Transcriptomes and metabolism define mouse and human MAIT cell populations
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MAIT cells activate dendritic cells to promote TFH cell differentiation and induce humoral immunity
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- Authors
- Constantinides, M. G., Link, V. M., Tamoutounour, S., Wong, A. C., Perez-Chaparro, P. J., Han, S.-J., Chen, Y. E., Li, K., Farhat, S., Weckel, A., Krishnamurthy, S. R., Vujkovic-Cvijin, I., Linehan, J. L., Bouladoux, N., Merrill, E. D., Roy, S., Cua, D. J., Adams, E. J., Bhandoola, A., Scharschmidt, T. C., Aubé, J., Fischbach, M. A., & Belkaid, Y.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- NIAID Microbiome Program, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
- Stanford University (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Belkaid, Yasmine
- ORCID
- Constantinides, Michael G.
- Link, Verena M.
- Wong, Andrea C.
- Perez-Chaparro, P. Juliana
- Chen, Y. Erin
- Li, Kelin
- Weckel, Antonin
- Krishnamurthy, Siddharth R.
- Vujkovic-Cvijin, Ivan
- Linehan, Jonathan L.
- Bouladoux, Nicolas
- Merrill, E. Dean
- Roy, Sobhan
- Adams, Erin J.
- Bhandoola, Avinash
- Scharschmidt, Tiffany C.
- Aubé, Jeffrey
- Fischbach, Michael A.
- Belkaid, Yasmine
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2019-10-25
- Volume
- 366
- Issue
- 6464
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC7603427
- OpenAlex
- W2981494076
- Cited by
- 567
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 93 · 2024: 82 · 2023: 81 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 25.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01-DK110174, DP1-DK113598, U19-AI111143)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub
- Cancer Research Institute
- European Molecular Biology Organization
- Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (ZIA-AI001115, ZIA-AI001132)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Psoriasis: Treatment and Pathogenesis
- Keywords
- mucosal-associated invariant T cells, gut microbiota, MR1, riboflavin derivatives, thymus development, commensal bacteria, tissue repair, skin, mucosal immunity, microbial metabolites, germ-free mice
- MeSH terms
- Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells, Animals, Bacteria, Germ-Free Life, Humans, Interleukin-1, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Riboflavin, Skin, Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms, Wound Healing, Histocompatibility Antigens Class I, Minor Histocompatibility Antigens, Mice, Knockout, Interleukin-17, Interleukin-18, Mice, Interleukin-23, Microbiota
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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