A new sociotechnical model for studying health information technology in complex adaptive healthcare systems
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Conceptual models have been developed to address challenges inherent in studying health information technology (HIT). METHOD: This manuscript introduces an eight-dimensional model specifically designed to address the sociotechnical challenges involved in design, development, implementation, use and evaluation of HIT within complex adaptive healthcare systems. DISCUSSION: The eight dimensions are not independent, sequential or hierarchical, but rather are interdependent and inter-related concepts similar to compositions of other complex adaptive systems. Hardware and software computing infrastructure refers to equipment and software used to power, support and operate clinical applications and devices. Clinical content refers to textual or numeric data and images that constitute the 'language' of clinical applications. The human--computer interface includes all aspects of the computer that users can see, touch or hear as they interact with it. People refers to everyone who interacts in some way with the system, from developer to end user, including potential patient-users. Workflow and communication are the processes or steps involved in ensuring that patient care tasks are carried out effectively. Two additional dimensions of the model are internal organisational features (eg, policies, procedures and culture) and external rules and regulations, both of which may facilitate or constrain many aspects of the preceding dimensions. The final dimension is measurement and monitoring, which refers to the process of measuring and evaluating both intended and unintended consequences of HIT implementation and use. We illustrate how our model has been successfully applied in real-world complex adaptive settings to understand and improve HIT applications at various stages of development and implementation.
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Digitisation redistributes responsibility across human and technical actors.
“Digitisation redistributes responsibility across human and technical actors.”
From Why digital health fails silently: a sociotechnical theory of health information technology–related risk (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
In “Moving towards a New Socio-technical Model for HIT” (page unavailable), the paper says care is shifting toward patients’ homes, software can enforce organizational policies, and some apparent user problems arise from system design. These passages support a change in how work and problems are distributed with HIT, but the paper does not explicitly assign responsibility to technical actors. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDigital systems reduce visibility of system state and process integrity, making HIT hazards latent and detected indirectly through downstream consequences.
“Digital systems frequently mediate clinical work in ways that reduce direct visibility of system state and process integrity.”
From Why digital health fails silently: a sociotechnical theory of health information technology–related risk (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
In “Moving towards a New Socio-technical Model for HIT” (page unavailable), the paper says users are generally unaware of much of the computing infrastructure until it fails, supporting reduced visibility of one aspect of system state. It does not establish the broader claim that digital mediation reduces direct visibility of clinical process integrity, or that HIT hazards are detected only indirectly through downstream consequences. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDiffusion of responsibility complicates accountability and can create gaps in oversight, particularly when responsibilities for monitoring, escalation, and remediation are not clearly defined.
“This diffusion complicates accountability and can create gaps in oversight, particularly when responsibilities for monitoring, escalation, and remediation are not clearly defined (13).”
From Why digital health fails silently: a sociotechnical theory of health information technology–related risk (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
The HIT Use section reports missed follow-up of abnormal test results and identifies organizational policies about who was responsible as relevant. The Background section calls for defined decision-making, monitoring, and governance processes. The paper does not specifically say that diffusion of responsibility creates oversight gaps, or discuss unclear escalation and remediation responsibilities. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDecisions about information accuracy, timing, and relevance are increasingly mediated by algorithms, system configurations, and interoperability rules that are often opaque to end users.
“Decisions about information accuracy, timing, and relevance are increasingly mediated by algorithms, system configurations, and interoperability rules that are often opaque to end users (1, 13).”
From Why digital health fails silently: a sociotechnical theory of health information technology–related risk (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
In “HIT Evaluation” (page unavailable), the paper reports that a software configuration error prevented some test-result notifications from reaching clinicians; “Moving towards a New Socio-technical Model for HIT” says users are generally unaware of underlying infrastructure until it fails. These passages support the role of system configuration and some lack of visibility, but do not establish the broader claim about increasingly algorithm-mediated judgments of accuracy and relevance or opaque interoperability rules. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe interest in trialing ambient AI scribes in the ICU was tempered by concerns about the sociotechnical implications of voice-based AI in team-based, high-risk environments.
“The interest in trialing ambient AI scribes in the ICU was tempered by concerns about the sociotechnical implications of voice-based AI in team-based, high-risk environments, highlighting the need for careful, context-sensitive implementation [27].”
From Clinician Perspectives on Ambient AI Scribes in the Intensive Care Unit: Qualitative Interview Study (2026) · cites this paper as [27]
The Introduction describes a sociotechnical framework for studying safe implementation of health IT in complex clinical settings, and “Relationships and Interactions between our Model’s Components” explains why a system that works in one unit may fail in another. This supports the need for context-sensitive implementation, but the paper does not report interest in trialing ambient AI scribes in the ICU or concerns specifically about voice-based AI. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The interview guide was previously developed based on sociotechnical theory and will explore key constructs including perceptions of usefulness, resource needs and constraints, barriers and facilitators to implementation, culture of safety, and adaptations.
“The interview guide was previously developed based on sociotechnical theory and will explore the following key constructs (Table 3): perceptions of usefulness, resource needs and constraints, barriers and facilitators to implementation, culture of safety, and adaptations [13,23].”
From Improving Communication in Intensive Care Unit to Ward Transitions: Protocol for Multisite National Implementation of the ICU-PAUSE Handoff Tool (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA coding framework rooted in the 8 dimensions of sociotechnical theory has been developed.
“A coding framework rooted in the 8 dimensions of sociotechnical theory has been developed along the following codes: hardware and software, clinical content, human-computer interface, people, workflow and communication, internal organizational features, and external rules and regulations [13].”
From Improving Communication in Intensive Care Unit to Ward Transitions: Protocol for Multisite National Implementation of the ICU-PAUSE Handoff Tool (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
The Abstract and “Moving towards a New Socio-technical Model for HIT” describe an eight-dimensional model and identify the seven dimensions listed in the citing sentence. The source describes a model, not a coding framework, and the cited list omits its eighth dimension, measurement and monitoring. Our copy provides no page numbers for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExisting sociotechnical models and safety frameworks have provided important insights into the role of system interactions and organisational context.
“Existing approaches, including sociotechnical models and safety frameworks, have provided important insights into the role of system interactions and organisational context (13, 16, 17, 28, 48).”
From Why digital health fails silently: a sociotechnical theory of health information technology–related risk (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
This study is informed by sociotechnical theory, which offers a paradigm for studying health information technology innovations.
“This study is informed by sociotechnical theory, which offers a paradigm for studying health information technology innovations [13].”
From Improving Communication in Intensive Care Unit to Ward Transitions: Protocol for Multisite National Implementation of the ICU-PAUSE Handoff Tool (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
This convergent mixed method approach will allow quantification of feasibility and acceptability while qualitatively assessing user experiences using CFIR and sociotechnical theory.
“This convergent mixed method approach will allow us to quantify the feasibility and acceptability of the ICU-PAUSE tool while also qualitatively assessing user experiences with the tool using the established implementation frameworks of CFIR and sociotechnical theory [13,14,17].”
From Improving Communication in Intensive Care Unit to Ward Transitions: Protocol for Multisite National Implementation of the ICU-PAUSE Handoff Tool (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
User interaction, the EHR interface, institutional workflows, and regulatory policies are dynamic and interdependent.
“We recognize that user interaction, the EHR interface, institutional workflows, and regulatory policies are all dynamic and interdependent.”
From Improving Communication in Intensive Care Unit to Ward Transitions: Protocol for Multisite National Implementation of the ICU-PAUSE Handoff Tool (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
Detecting and preventing EHR-related safety concerns is challenging because concerns are often multifaceted, involving unsafe technological features, user behaviors, organizational characteristics, and rules and regulations.
“Detecting and preventing EHR-related safety concerns is challenging because concerns are often multifaceted, involving not only potentially unsafe technological features of the EHR but also EHR user behaviors, organizational characteristics, and rules and regulations that guide EHR-related activities.”
From An analysis of electronic health record-related patient safety concerns (2014) · cites this paper as [24]
The authors previously developed a sociotechnical model that proposes eight interdependent dimensions essential to understand EHR-related safety.
“For instance, we previously developed a sociotechnical model that proposes eight interdependent dimensions that are essential to understand EHR-related safety (table 1; Sittig and Singh model).24 34”
From An analysis of electronic health record-related patient safety concerns (2014) · cites this paper as [24]
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An analysis of electronic health record-related patient safety concerns
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Self-citationInformation Overload and Missed Test Results in Electronic Health Record–Based Settings
Singh, H., Spitzmueller, C., Petersen, N. J., Sawhney, M. K., & Sittig, D. F. (2013) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/2013.jamainternmed.61 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Self-citationElectronic health records and national patient-safety goals
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Self-citationAdvancing the science of measurement of diagnostic errors in healthcare: the Safer Dx framework
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Self-citationJames, H. M., Papoutsi, C., Wherton, J., Greenhalgh, T., & Shaw, S. E. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/23775 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Beyond “implementation”: digital health innovation and service design
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Artificial intelligence in oncology: path to implementation
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Bridging the implementation gap of machine learning in healthcare
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Patient portals and health apps: Pitfalls, promises, and what one might learn from the other
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Self-citationShaw, J., Jamieson, T., Agarwal, P., Griffin, B., Wong, I., & Bhatia, R. S. (2017) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x17730444 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Current challenges in health information technology–related patient safety
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Defining Health Information Technology–Related Errors
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Self-citationPrivacy, confidentiality, security and patient safety concerns about electronic health records
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Self-citationHCI for health and wellbeing: Challenges and opportunities
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“Models for the introduction of technologies in health care have been proposed [101] and the possibility that recurrent cycles of information technology improvements might help reduce potential harmful effects of IT disruptions has been discussed in the informatics literature [102].”
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Patient perceptions of receiving test results via online portals: a mixed-methods study
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The unintended consequences of health information technology revisited
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A Socio-technical Approach to Preventing, Mitigating, and Recovering from Ransomware Attacks
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Self-citationChildhood cancer survivor care: development of the Passport for Care
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Exploring situational awareness in diagnostic errors in primary care
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Development and initial evaluation of the Clinical Information Systems Success Model (CISSM)
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Self-citation“Artificial Intelligence” for Pharmacovigilance: Ready for Prime Time?
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Self-citationUse of Traumatic Brain Injury Prediction Rules With Clinical Decision Support
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Building the evidence-base to reduce electronic health record–related clinician burden
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Self-citationDeterminants of Intensive Care Unit Telemedicine Effectiveness: An Ethnographic Study
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The emergence of new data work occupations in healthcare: The case of medical scribes
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Capturing the patient voice: implementing patient-reported outcomes across the health system
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Health Disparities, Clinical Trials, and the Digital Divide
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Self-citationEmerging Technologies for Identifying Atrial Fibrillation
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Checking the Lists: A Systematic Review of Electronic Checklist Use in Health Care
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Telehealth was beneficial during COVID ‐19 for older Americans: A qualitative study with physicians
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Self-citationOpportunities for genomic clinical decision support interventions
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Nurses’ Experience With Health Information Technology: Longitudinal Qualitative Study
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Technology entrepreneurship in healthcare: Challenges and opportunities for value creation
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AI Scribes in Health Care: Balancing Transformative Potential With Responsible Integration
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Usability evaluation of a commercial inpatient portal
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The contribution of sociotechnical factors to health information technology-related sentinel events
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- Authors
- Sittig, D. F., & Singh, H.
- Affiliations
- Memorial Hermann (US)
- Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sittig, D. F.
- Venue
- Quality and Safety in Health Care
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2010-10-01
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- Suppl 3
- Pages
- i68-i74
- ISSN
- 1475-3898 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-3901
- PMC
- PMC3120130
- OpenAlex
- W2110034024
- Cited by
- 897
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 179 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 36.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- BMJ Quality & Safety (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Health Services Research and Development
- National Institutes of Health
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (R18HS017820)
- VA National Center for Patient Safety
- National Cancer Institute (K23CA125585)
- U.S. National Library of Medicine (R01LM006942, R56LM006942)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Health Information Management › Electronic Health Records Systems
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Information Systems Theories and Implementation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Technology and Human Factors in Education and Health
- Keywords
- health information technology, socio-technical model, complex adaptive systems, health care system, clinical workflow, human-machine interaction, organizational culture, health policy and regulation, monitoring and measurement, unintended consequences
- MeSH terms
- Diffusion of Innovation, Health Services Research, Humans, Ergonomics, Medical Informatics, Models, Theoretical, Planning Techniques, Programming Languages, Software Design, User-Computer Interface, Organizational Culture, Organizational Policy, Workflow
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