Prevalence and Effects of Mood Disorders on Work Performance in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Workers
Open accessAbstract
Objective: Research on the workplace costs of mood disorders has focused largely on major depressive episodes. Bipolar disorder has been overlooked both because of the failure to distinguish between major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder and by the failure to evaluate the workplace costs of mania/hypomania. Method: The National Comorbidity Survey Replication assessed major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder with the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) and work impairment with the WHO Health and Work Performance Questionnaire. A regression analysis of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder predicting Health and Work Performance Questionnaire scores among 3,378 workers was used to estimate the workplace costs of mood disorders. Results: A total of 1.1% of the workers met CIDI criteria for 12-month bipolar disorder (I or II), and 6.4% meet criteria for 12-month major depressive disorder. Bipolar disorder was associated with 65.5 and major depressive disorder with 27.2 lost workdays per ill worker per year. Subgroup analysis showed that the higher work loss associated with bipolar disorder than with major depressive disorder was due to more severe and persistent depressive episodes in those with bipolar disorder than in those with major depressive disorder rather than to stronger effects of mania/hypomania than depression. Conclusions: Employer interest in workplace costs of mood disorders should be broadened beyond major depressive disorder to include bipolar disorder. Effectiveness trials are needed to study the return on employer investment of coordinated programs for workplace screening and treatment of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder.
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Among people occupying social and productive roles, major depressive disorder predicts substantial declines in role functioning, including poorer marital quality, lower work performance, and lower earnings.
“Among people with specific social and productive roles, MDD is found to predict significant decrements in role functioning (e.g., low marital quality, low work performance, low earnings).”
From The Costs of Depression (2012) · cites this paper as [64]
Major depressive episode and major depressive disorder significantly predict overall lost work performance, with annual salary-equivalent human capital value estimates between $30.1 billion and $51.5 billion.
“All these studies found that MDE and MDD significantly predict overall lost work performance. Several studies attempted to estimate the annual salary-equivalent human capital value of these losses. These estimates were in the range $30.1 billion66 to $51.5 billion.64”
From The Costs of Depression (2012) · cites this paper as [64]
Impaired cognition is likely associated with difficulties in everyday tasks, contributing to psychosocial and functional impairments, reduced productivity, and disability in major depressive disorder.
“Impaired cognition is likely associated with difficulties in everyday tasks contributing to the high degree of psychosocial and functional impairments [6–8], reduced productivity [9], and disability associated with MDD [10, 11].”
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“Depression has been associated with such decrements in work productivity [21– 23].”
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“2 | International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 2016 Introduction Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent and disabling illness affecting greater than 350 million people worldwide (Kessler et al., 2006).”
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“…disorder as revealed in empirical investigations (Goldberg and Harrow, 2005; Fagiolini et al., 2005; Altshuler et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2006; Kessler et al., 2006; Simon et al., 2007; Pope et al., 2007; Goetz et al., 2007; Morriss et al., 2007; Martinez-Aran et al., 2007; Michalak et al.,…”
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“Major depressive disorder is a highly prevalent, disabling disease with negative impact on medical health, life quality, and productivity (Kessler et al., 2006; Baune et al., 2007).”
BackgroundHeterogeneity of DSM-IV Major Depressive Disorder as a Consequence of Subthreshold Bipolarity
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“5 times higher than in DD (Kessler et al., 2006).”
Poverty, Material Hardship, and Depression *
Heflin, C. M., & Iceland, J. (2009) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00645.x · Cited by 245 · see citing works
“While it is clear that depression results in lost income (Marcotte and Wilcox-Gok, 2001; Kessler et al., 2006; Greenberg et al., 2003), there is a growing consensus that socioeconomic disadvantage precedes poor mental health.”
BackgroundHypersomnia across mood disorders: A review and synthesis
Kaplan, K. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2008.09.001 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Glutamatergic Modulators: The Future of Treating Mood Disorders?
Zarate, C., Machado-Vieira, R., Henter, I., Ibrahim, L., Diazgranados, N., & Salvadore, G. (2010) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/10673229.2010.511059 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Work-focused treatment of common mental disorders and return to work: A comparative outcome study.
Lagerveld, S. E., Blonk, R. W. B., Brenninkmeijer, V., Meij, L. W., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2012) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027049 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Interventions to improve return to work in depressed people
Nieuwenhuijsen, K., Verbeek, J. H. A. M., Neumeyer‐Gromen, A., Verhoeven, A. C., Bültmann, U., & Faber, B. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006237.pub4 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Bipolar depression: the clinical characteristics and unmet needs of a complex disorder
McIntyre, R. S., & Calabrese, J. R. (2019) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1080/03007995.2019.1636017 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
The prevalence and burden of bipolar depression
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“workers from the NCS-R (described above), BD patients with at least one prior-year major depressive episode had greater levels of absenteeism, presenteeism, and total lost workdays compared with BD patients with only manic/hypomanic episode(s) during the previous 12 months (Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRheenen, T. E. V., Meyer, D., Neill, E., Phillipou, A., Tan, E. J., Toh, W. L., & Rossell, S. L. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.037 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“In terms of work productivity, the cost per year to bipolar disorder is double that of depressive disorder, with a greater number of lost work days, and thus income, likely to confer heightened financial disadvantage (Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundJudge, T. A., & Hurst, C. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.849 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
“Jones, Smith, & Johnston, 2005; Martocchio, Harrison, & Berkson, 2000), and productivity (Adler et al., 2006; Burton et al., 2005; Kessler et al., 2006; Keyes & Grzywacz, 2005).”
Mental Ill-Health and the Differential Effect of Employee Type on Absenteeism and Presenteeism
Hilton, M. F., Scuffham, P., Sheridan, J. S., Cleary, C. M., & Whiteford, H. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e31818c30a8 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“6 billion in the USA per annum.(12) The estimates presented here put the cost of psychological distress in the UK at £4.”
BackgroundDeckersbach, T., Nierenberg, A. A., Kessler, R., Lund, H. G., Ametrano, R. M., Sachs, G., Rauch, S. L., & Dougherty, D. (2010) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2009.00110.x · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“The primary outcome measure of the study was the World Health Organization (WHO) HPQ as a measure of occupational functioning [4,39].”
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The Public Health Impact of Major Depression: A Call for Interdisciplinary Prevention Efforts
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“Individuals with depression lose 5.6 h of productive time at work per week compared to 1.6 h in non-depressed workers (Stewart et al. 2003), which results in 225 million lost workdays and $36.6 billion of salary-equivalent lost productivity per year associated with depression (Kessler et al. 2006).”
InfluentialEpidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder in Mainland China: A Systematic Review
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Novel therapeutic targets in depression: Minocycline as a candidate treatment
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“Mood disorders, notably major depressive disorder (MDD) nd bipolar disorder (BD), are leading causes of disability and remature mortality in developed and developing nations [1,2].”
Making the Case for IPS Supported Employment
Bond, G. R., & Drake, R. E. (2014) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-012-0444-6 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Including lost productivity, the total social cost of SMI is enormous (Drake et al. 2009; Hu 2006; Kessler et al. 2006; Knapp et al. 2004; Lim et al. 2001; Livermore et al. 2011; Salize et al. 2009; Wu et al. 2005).”
Under Diagnosis of Adult ADHD: Cultural Influences and Societal Burden
Asherson, P., Akehurst, R., Kooij, J. J. S., Huss, M., Beusterien, K., Sasané, R., Gholizadeh, S., & Hodgkins, P. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054711435360 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“, 2008; Barkley, Murphy, O’Connell, & Connor, 2005) and (b) that the number of adults with ADHD in treatment is far lower than the actual number of adults with ADHD (Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWell-Being and the Risk of Depression under Stress
Grant, F., Guille, C., & Sen, S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067395 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Depression is the leading cause of lost worker productivity and days lost to disability [1], [2] and accounts for an annual capital loss of $36 billion [3].”
BackgroundMaliken, A. C., & Katz, L. F. (2013) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-013-0132-4 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Woo, Y. S., Rosenblat, J. D., Kakar, R., Bahk, W.-M., & McIntyre, R. S. (2016) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.2016.14.1.1 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Defining and Measuring Functional Recovery from Depression
Greer, T. L., Kurian, B. T., & Trivedi, M. H. (2010) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.2165/11530230-000000000-00000 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Kessler, R. C., Lane, M., Stang, P. E., & Van Brunt, D. L. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708003309 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Self-citationRestoring function in major depressive disorder: A systematic review
Sheehan, D. V., Nakagome, K., Asami, Y., Pappadopulos, E. A., & Boucher, M. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.02.029 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
The impact of work environment on mood disorders and suicide: Evidence and implications
Woo, J., & Postolache, T. T. (2008) · International Journal on Disability and Human Development · doi:10.1515/ijdhd.2008.7.2.185 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“Using the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, Kessle r and coworkers (3) reported that 1.”
MethodComer, J. S., & Barlow, D. H. (2013) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0033582 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“Workers with MDD miss more days than their nondepressed counterparts, accounting for 225 million missed workdays each year and corresponding to an estimated $36.6 billion in annual lost productivity (Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialLeuchter, A. F., Cook, I. A., Marangell, L. B., Gilmer, W. S., Burgoyne, K. S., Howland, R. H., Trivedi, M. H., Zisook, S., Jain, R., McCracken, J. T., et al. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.06.004 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Vitamin D and Depression: A Critical Appraisal of the Evidence and Future Directions
Menon, V., Kar, S. K., Suthar, N., & Nebhinani, N. (2019) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.4103/ijpsym.ijpsym_160_19 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“12 Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine | Volume 42 | Issue 1 | January-February 2020 economic and social consequences, such as decreased productivity and increased health care utilization costs.[5,6] Compounding the issue further, depression is associated with a high burden of nonresponse to conventional treatmen…”
BackgroundDistinguishing comorbidity and successful management of adult ADHD
Kooij, J. J. S., Huss, M., Asherson, P., Akehurst, R., Beusterien, K., French, A., Sasané, R., & Hodgkins, P. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054711435361 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“According to data from the NCS-R, 38.3% of adult ADHD patients have a comorbid mood disorder, with a lifetime prevalence of 45% (Adler, Spencer, et al., 2008; Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAhola, K., Mika Kivimaki, B., Honkonen, T., Virtanen, M., Koskinen, S. V. P., Vahtera, J., & Lönnqvist, J. K. (2008) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.06.022 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Machado-Vieira, R., Manji, H. K., & Zarate, C. A. (2009) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858409336093 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Suppes, T. M., Datto, C. J., Minkwitz, M. C., Nordenhem, A., Walker, C., & Darko, D. F. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.10.007 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Frank, E., Soreca, I., Swartz, H. A., Fagiolini, A. M., Mallinger, A. G., Thase, M. E., Grochocinski, V. J., Houck, P. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (2008) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07121953 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“In addition, patients with bipolar disorder who are employed have a higher number of annual missed work days than individuals without bipolar disorder (10) and tend to have more deficits in work performance when compared with persons with unipolar depression and with a nationally representative control group (11).”
Bipolar Disorder — A Focus on Depression
Frye, M. A. (2011) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmcp1000402 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Inflammatory mediators in major depression and bipolar disorder
Poletti, S., Mazza, M. G., & Benedetti, F. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02921-z · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“Mood disorders have been recognized by the World Health Organization as a major source of disability, morbidity, and mortality worldwide [1].”
BackgroundShockley, K. M., Ispas, D., Rossi, M. E., & Levine, E. (2012) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959285.2012.721832 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“Cumulative episodes of sadness may result in depression, which is linked to not only poor performance (Kessler et al., 2006) but also to absenteeism (Plaisier et al., 2010) and healthcare costs (Berto, D’Ilario, Ruffo, Di Virgilio, & Rizzio, 2000).”
BackgroundLee, C., Dickson, D. A., Conley, C. S., & Holmbeck, G. N. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.6.560 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Depressive symptoms have been found to not only impact students during college, as observed in academics, interpersonal relationships, and overall quality of life (Rapaport, Clary, Fayyad, & Endicott, 2005), but also persist into adulthood (Kessler et al., 2006; Salmela-Aro, Aunola, & Nurmi, 2008).”
BackgroundWork Performance of Employees with Depression: The Impact of Work Stressors
Lerner, D., Adler, D. A., Rogers, W. H., Chang, G., Lapitsky, L., McLaughlin, T., & Reed, J. (2010) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/ajhp.090313-quan-103 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“Eligibility assessment involved the following steps: (1) research assistants (RAs) in primary care physician (PCP) offices invited patients, except those in obvious discomfort, to complete a brief self-report screening survey; (2) the PCP was informed of the result and asked to confirm medical eligibility; (3) confirm…”
Breast Cancer Survivors at Work
Hansen, J. A., Feuerstein, M. A., Calvio, L. C., & Olsen, C. H. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e318165159e · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Job stress and its emotional sequelae can impact an individual’s ability to perform optimally at work.(14,15) Although it is reasonable to assume symptom burden may impact job stress, research has not always supported this notion.”
BackgroundBarger, L. K., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., Wang, W., O’Brien, C. S., Sullivan, J. P., Qadri, S., Lockley, S. W., Czeisler, C. A., & for the Harvard Work Hours, H. A. S. G. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.4534 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“56 59 Thus, screening should be an initial step in evaluation and treatment programs for sleep disorders.”
Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology
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“It has also been proposed that sickness presenteeism in the form of work cutback days is far more often an expression of reduced work capacity than actual absence from work (Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundComparing the effects on work performance of mental and physical disorders
de Graaf, R., Tuithof, M., van Dorsselaer, S., & ten Have, M. (2012) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-012-0496-7 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
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Sleep Disturbances in Mood Disorders
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Ability of a 9-Item Well-Being Index to Identify Distress and Stratify Quality of Life in US Workers
Dyrbye, L. N., Satele, D., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000798 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Workers with mental health problems cost US employers $31 to $51 billion in lost productivity.(4,5) Mental health disorders are the leading cause for disability among workingaged US adults,(6) and among the most costly of all health conditions.”
BackgroundCognitive-behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults
Lopez, P. L., Torrente, F. M., Ciapponi, A., Lischinsky, A. G., Cetkovich-Bakmas, M., Rojas, J. I., Romano, M., & Manes, F. F. (2018) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010840.pub2 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
ELGAMAL, S., McKINNON, M. C., RAMAKRISHNAN, K., JOFFE, R. T., & MacQUEEN, G. (2007) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707001110 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Although its effects are variable, MDD can cause impairment in cognitive functioning across multiple domains, including executive functioning and memory, with associated loss of productivity (Kessler et al. 2006).”
BackgroundWork Productivity in Brain Tumor Survivors
Feuerstein, M., Hansen, J. A., Calvio, L. C., Johnson, L. A., & Ronquillo, J. G. (2007) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e318095a458 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Caddy, C., Giaroli, G., White, T. P., Shergill, S. S., & Tracy, D. K. (2013) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125313507739 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
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“This disorder can severely affect social functioning of affected individuals, diminishing their quality of life, and increasing their risk of fatality through suicide (Bijl & Ravelli, 2000; Fredman,Weissman, Leaf, & Bruce, 1988; Kessler et al., 2006).”
BackgroundGodboldo-Brooks, A., Hagen, S. E., Sathyanarayanan, S., Schultz, A. B., & Edington, D. W. (2010) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e3181f475cc · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Cocker, F., Martin, A. J., Scott, J. L., Venn, A., & Sanderson, K. A. (2013) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph10105062 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Blair, A., Ross, N. A., Gariépy, G., & Schmitz, N. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0810-z · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The WHO World Mental Health (WMH) Surveys
Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Chatterji, S., Lee, S., Üstün, T. B., & Kessler, R. C. (2009) · Die Psychiatrie · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1671923 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“4% of workers were found to have an episode of MDD in the year of the survey, resulting in an average of over five weeks of lost work productivity (10).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAshworth, D. K., Sletten, T. L., Junge, M., Simpson, K., Clarke, D., Cunnington, D., & Rajaratnam, S. M. W. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000059 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Ivanova, J. I., Birnbaum, H. G., Kidolezi, Y., Subramanian, G., Khan, S., & Stensland, M. D. (2010) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1185/03007995.2010.517716 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“[0] Employees with disability data with at least 1 month eligibility from 2004–2007 2,232,365 [1] Employees identified as MDD 81,631 [2] Employees without psychoses, schizophrenia, bipolar/manic depression, or dementia 67,012 [3] Employees with at least one antidepressant claim starting 1/1/2004 39,059 [4] Eligible at…”
BackgroundSelf-citationClinical practice recommendations for bipolar disorder
Malhi, G. S., Adams, D., Lampe, L. A., Paton, M. B., O’Connor, N., Newton, L., Walter, G., Taylor, A., Porter, R., Mulder, R., et al. (2009) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01383.x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“In part, this occurs because bipolar disorder most often begins with a depressive episode that naturally leads to a diagnosis of depression (16, 17), and usually, several depressive episodes precede the first episode of mania or hypomania (18, 19).”
BackgroundInterventions to improve occupational health in depressed people
Nieuwenhuijsen, K., Bültmann, U., Neumeyer-Gromen, A., Verhoeven, A. C., Verbeek, J. H., & Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. (2008) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006237.pub2 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
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“4% have been reported to meet the criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) [2], and 4.”
BackgroundMethodDepression and the workplace: A progress report
Bender, A., & Farvolden, P. (2008) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0013-6 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Trivedi, M. H., Morris, D. W., Wisniewski, S. R., Lesser, I. M., Nierenberg, A. A., Daly, E., Kurian, B. T., Gaynes, B. N., Balasubramani, G. K., & Rush, A. J. (2013) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12020250 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“In addition, one study (5) found that major depression was associated with 8.”
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Caldwell, K. E., Sheema, S., Paz, R., Samudio‐Ruiz, S. L., LAUGHLIN, M., SPENCE, N., Roehlk, M. J., Alcon, S. N., & Allan, A. M. (2008) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2008.05.004 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
N-acetylcysteine for major depressive episodes in bipolar disorder
Magalhães, P. V. D. S., Dean, O. M., Bush, A. I., Copolov, D., Malhi, G. S., Kohlmann, K., Jeavons, S., Schapkaitz, I., Anderson‐Hunt, M., & Berk, M. (2011) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/s1516-44462011000400011 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Improving adherence in mood disorders: the struggle against relapse, recurrence and suicide risk
Pompili, M., Serafini, G., CASALE, A. D., Rigucci, S., Innamorati, M., Girardi, P., Tatarelli, R., & Lester, D. (2009) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/ern.09.62 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kessler, R. C., Akiskal, H. S., Ames, M., Birnbaum, H., Greenberg, P., .A, R. M., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., Simon, G. E., & Wang, P. S.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2006-09
- Volume
- 163
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1561-1568
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- PMC
- PMC1924724
- OpenAlex
- W2120839478
- Cited by
- 868
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 27.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (R01 DA016558)
- John W. Alden Trust
- Eli Lilly and Company
- Pfizer
- GlaxoSmithKline
- World Health Organization
- Harvard University
- Michigan State University
- Johns Hopkins University
- University of Pittsburgh
- National Institutes of Health (5r13mh066849-04, 5r01mh069864-04)
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
- College of Engineering, Michigan State University
- Pfizer Foundation (R01‐MH069864, R01-DA016558)
- Pan American Health Organization
- National Institute of Mental Health (R13-MH-066849, U01-MH-60220, MH60220, U13MH066849, U01MH060220, R01‐MH069864)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (K05DA015799, R01DA016558)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Bipolar Disorder and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- mood disorders, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, employee performance, work impairment, lost workdays, mania, hypomania, prevalence
- MeSH terms
- Absenteeism, Adolescent, Adult, Bipolar Disorder, Costs and Cost Analysis, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Efficiency, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Occupations, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Task Performance and Analysis, United States, Work, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Workplace, Mood Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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