Does Far Transfer Exist? Negative Evidence From Chess, Music, and Working Memory Training
Open accessAbstract
Chess masters and expert musicians appear to be, on average, more intelligent than the general population. Some researchers have thus claimed that playing chess or learning music enhances children’s cognitive abilities and academic attainment. We here present two meta-analyses assessing the effect of chess and music instruction on children’s cognitive and academic skills. A third meta-analysis evaluated the effects of working memory training—a cognitive skill correlated with music and chess expertise—on the same variables. The results show small to moderate effects. However, the effect sizes are inversely related to the quality of the experimental design (e.g., presence of active control groups). This pattern of results casts serious doubts on the effectiveness of chess, music, and working memory training. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings; extend the debate to other types of training such as spatial training, brain training, and video games; and conclude that far transfer of learning rarely occurs.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across meta-analyses of chess, music, and working memory training, training produced small to moderate effects, but effects shrank to minimal or null when compared with active control groups. The authors conclude that far transfer of learning rarely occurs, and that cognitive ability correlates with chess/music expertise mainly because smarter individuals select into and excel in those domains.
Key findings
- Chess players’ overall cognitive ability was superior to non-chess players by half a standard deviation; chess skill correlated with fluid intelligence, processing speed, short-term/working memory, and comprehension knowledge.
- Overall training effects were small to moderate: chess 0.34 SD [0.24, 0.44], music 0.16 SD [0.09, 0.22], and working memory training 0.12 SD [0.06, 0.18].
- Effects were inversely related to design quality: with active controls, music training was 0.03 SD [−0.07, 0.12], k = 54, versus 0.25 SD [0.17, 0.34], k = 64, with passive controls; working memory training was 0.05 SD [−0.05, 0.15], k = 40, versus 0.18 SD [−0.09, 0.26], k = 34. Chess had only one active-control study, with a minimal 0.10 SD effect.
- The only exception was robust near-transfer from working memory training to other memory tasks: 0.44 and 0.46 SD when compared with active and passive control groups, respectively.
Methods
- Meta-analyses of experimental studies in typically developing children and young adolescents tested chess and music instruction effects on academic attainment (literacy and mathematics) and cognitive skills, and working memory training effects on academic achievement, fluid intelligence, and cognitive control.
- The article also reviews meta-analytic correlational evidence on chess and music expertise and cognitive ability.
- Effects were pooled as standardized mean differences between treatment and control groups with 95% confidence intervals, comparing passive versus active control groups.
Limitations
- The paper states its conclusions apply at least with typically developing children and young adolescents; chess active-control evidence was limited to one study, and future interventions should include pretests and at least two control groups.
- Evident from the text: meta-analytic estimates depend on the available studies and their design quality, and the correlational evidence cannot establish causation, as the authors themselves note.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 35 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation
When experimental groups were compared with active control groups, the overall effect sizes were minimal or null.
“when the experimental groups were compared with active control groups—other filler activities to rule out possible placebo effects such as positive expectations about the training (Boot, Simons, Stothart, & Stutts, 2013) and the excitement induced by a novel activity—the overall effect sizes were minimal or null.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Boot et al., 2013
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- Findingown data
Music instruction has an overall effect size of 0.03 SD [−0.07, 0.12], k = 54, for comparisons with active control groups.
“the overall effect sizes were 0.25 SD, 95% CI = [0.17, 0.34], k = 64,3 and 0.03 SD, 95% CI = [−0.07, 0.12], k = 54, for the comparisons with passive and active control groups, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017b
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
Working memory training has an overall effect size of 0.18 SD [−0.09, 0.26], k = 34, for comparisons with passive control groups.
“the overall effect sizes were 0.18 SD, 95% CI = [−0.09, 0.26], k = 34, and 0.05 SD, 95% CI = [−0.05, 0.15], k = 40, for the comparisons with passive and active control groups, respectively”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017c
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- Findingcitation
Chess training has an overall effect size of 0.34 SD [0.24, 0.44] on cognitive and academic skills.
“Chess | 0.34 [0.24, 0.44]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2016, 2017b
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- Findingown data
The size of the effects was inversely related to the quality of the experimental design.
“The size of the effects was inversely related to the quality of the experimental design.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Music instruction has an overall effect size of 0.25 SD [0.17, 0.34], k = 64, for comparisons with passive control groups.
“the overall effect sizes were 0.25 SD, 95% CI = [0.17, 0.34], k = 64,3 and 0.03 SD, 95% CI = [−0.07, 0.12], k = 54, for the comparisons with passive and active control groups, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017b
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- Findingown data
The three meta-analyses of experimental studies showed small to moderate overall effect sizes.
“The results showed small to moderate overall effect sizes—that is, the overall quantitative measure of the effectiveness of the training—in all three meta-analyses (Table 1).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“The results show small to moderate effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2016, 2017b
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- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017c
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- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingcitation
Working memory training has an overall effect size of 0.12 SD [0.06, 0.18].
“Working memory | 0.12 [0.06, 0.18]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017c
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- Findingown data
Working memory training has an overall effect size of 0.05 SD [−0.05, 0.15], k = 40, for comparisons with active control groups.
“the overall effect sizes were 0.18 SD, 95% CI = [−0.09, 0.26], k = 34, and 0.05 SD, 95% CI = [−0.05, 0.15], k = 40, for the comparisons with passive and active control groups, respectively”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2017c
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
Working memory training exerted a robust near-transfer effect on other memory tasks (0.44 and 0.46 SD when compared with active and passive control groups, respectively).
“The only exception to this pattern was the robust near-transfer effect that WM training exerted on other memory tasks (0.44 and 0.46 SD when the treated groups were compared with active and passive control groups, respectively).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Music training has an overall effect size of 0.16 SD [0.09, 0.22].
“Music | 0.16 [0.09, 0.22]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala & Gobet, 2016, 2017b
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- Premisecitation
Conservatory-level musicians scored higher on Raven's Progressive Matrices than novice musicians.
“In Ruthsatz, Detterman, Griscom, and Cirullo (2008), a group of conservatory-level musicians got higher scores on Raven’s Progressive Matrices—a standard measure of fluid intelligence—compared with a group of novice musicians.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ruthsatz et al., 2008
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- Premiseown data
Chess masters and expert musicians appear, on average, more intelligent than the general population.
“Chess masters and expert musicians appear to be, on average, more intelligent than the general population.”
- Also stated in: § Comparison and correlational studies · plain
“People engaged in intellectual activities show superior overall cognitive ability compared with the general population.”
- Also stated in: § Theoretical and Practical Implications · plain
“People engaged in cognitively demanding activities such as chess and music have better overall cognitive ability than the general population”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Sala et al., 2017
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- cites Burgoyne et al., 2016
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- cites Ruthsatz et al., 2008
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- Also stated in: § Comparison and correlational studies · plain
- Interpretationown data
Training chess, music, or working memory capacity does not reliably enhance any skill beyond the skills they train.
“training chess, music, or WM capacity does not reliably enhance any skill beyond the skills they train”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Attempts to obtain a far-transfer effect from spatial training to mathematical ability have been unsuccessful so far.
“Regrettably, the attempts to obtain such a far-transfer effect have been unsuccessful so far (e.g., Xu & LeFevre, 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Xu & LeFevre, 2016
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- Interpretationown data
Far-transfer effects, when reported, probably stemmed from confounds such as placebo effects.
“far-transfer effects, when reported, probably stemmed from confounds such as placebo effects”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The more skilled the chess player, the higher his or her level of cognitive ability.
“In other words, the more skilled the chess player, the higher his or her level of cognitive ability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Theories assuming that skill acquisition and expert behavior rely on a large amount of domain-specific information find substantial corroboration in our results.
“theories assuming that skill acquisition and expert behavior rely on a large amount of domain-specific information—such as chunking (Chase & Simon, 1973) and template theories (Gobet & Simon, 1996)—find substantial corroboration in our results.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chase & Simon, 1973
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- cites Gobet & Simon, 1996
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- Interpretationcitation
In accordance with common-elements theory, far transfer remains a chimera.
“In accordance with Thorndike and Woodworth’s (1901) common-elements theory, far transfer remains a chimera.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thorndike and Woodworth (1901)
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- Interpretationreasoning
Children and young adolescents represent an ideal population to test the possible transfer of chess and music skills to other domains.
“Children and young adolescents represent an ideal population on which to test the possible transfer of chess and music skills to other domains: During childhood and early adolescence, cognitive ability and academic skills are still at an initial stage of development, and thus, cognitive training is more likely to be effective than in adulthood.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The positive correlation between cognitive ability and chess or music does not tell us anything certain about far transfer.
“The positive correlation between cognitive ability and chess or music does not tell us anything certain about far transfer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The same pattern of results appears to occur with other types of cognitive training.
“The same pattern of results appears to occur with other types of cognitive training.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In Oei and Patterson's experiment, participants' improvements were limited to the cognitive abilities targeted by the game they played.
“The results showed that participants’ improvements were limited to the cognitive abilities targeted by the game they played.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Oei and Patterson (2015)
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- Premisecitation
Studies with a strong experimental design (active control group and random allocation) showed no far-transfer effects.
“However, the studies with a strong experimental design (e.g., active control group and random allocation of the participants to the groups) showed no far-transfer effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Simons et al., 2016
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- Interpretationown data
The effectiveness of commercial brain-training programs remains doubtful.
“However, in light of the results reported in the present paper, the effectiveness of these programs remains doubtful”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Simons et al., 2016
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- Interpretationown data
The meta-analytic reviews strongly suggest that optimism about far-transfer effects of cognitive training is not justified, at least with typically developing children and young adolescents.
“The meta-analytic reviews presented in this article strongly suggest that the optimism about the far-transfer effects of cognitive training is not justified, at least with typically developing children and young adolescents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The benefits of domain-specific training should not be expected to generalize to other domains.
“Moreover, the benefits of such domain-specific training should not be expected to generalize to other domains (e.g., learning Latin to improve logical thinking in mathematics).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Converging evidence supporting common-elements theory comes from research on other types of training and expertise acquisition.
“Moreover, converging evidence supporting Thorndike and Woodworth’s (1901) common-elements theory comes from the research on other types of training (e.g., WM training, video games, spatial training, and brain training) and expertise acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thorndike and Woodworth (1901)
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- Interpretationown data
Far transfer of learning rarely occurs.
“conclude that far transfer of learning rarely occurs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The substantial absence of far transfer suggests that neural patterns observed in people engaged in cognitively demanding activities reflect modifications in domain-specific abilities rather than enhanced domain-general cognitive ability.
“The substantial absence of far transfer suggests that the neural patterns observed in people engaged in cognitively demanding activities reflect modifications in domain-specific abilities (e.g., chess skill) rather than enhanced domain-general cognitive ability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Theories assuming that training domain-general cognitive abilities helps individuals improve a broad range of domain-specific skills are not supported.
“Conversely, theories assuming that training domain-general cognitive abilities helps individuals to improve a broad range of domain-specific skills are not supported”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 10
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataChess interventions included only one study with an active control group, with minimal effects (0.10 SD).
“the chess interventions included only one study with an active control group (with minimal effects: 0.10 SD).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationChess players' overall cognitive ability is superior to that of non-chess players by half a standard deviation, a moderately large effect.
“we found that chess players’ overall cognitive ability was superior to that of non-chess players by half a standard deviation, a moderately large effect.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sala et al., 2017
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThis outcome is in line with Thorndike and Woodworth's common-elements theory.
“This outcome is in line with Thorndike and Woodworth’s (1901) common-elements theory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thorndike and Woodworth (1901)
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationTraining on a working memory task improved fluid intelligence test performance in Jaeggi et al. (2008).
“Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, and Perrig (2008), which presented an experiment in which participants who received training on a WM task showed an improvement on a fluid intelligence test (Raven’s Matrices).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jaeggi et al., 2008
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPositive correlations exist between music skill, working memory, and IQ.
“Lee, Lu, and Ko (2007) and Schellenberg (2006) found positive correlations between music skill, WM, and IQ.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lee et al., 2007
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- cites Schellenberg, 2006
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Interpretationnone givenCognitive ability (e.g., working memory or general intelligence) is a predictor of chess skill and music skill.
“cognitive ability (e.g., WM or general intelligence) is a predictor of chess skill and music skill, among many others”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBrain-training programs enhance performance on the task they train and, at best, some other similar tasks.
“Like WM training, such programs have been proven to enhance participants’ performance on the task they train and, at best, some other similar tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Simons et al., 2016
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSpatial ability predicts attainment in mathematics.
“Considering that spatial ability predicts attainment in mathematics (Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wai et al., 2009
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May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPeople with superior cognitive ability are more likely to engage and excel in chess and music.
“An alternative explanation is that people with superior cognitive ability are more likely to engage and excel in chess and music.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions and Future Directions · hedged
“Rather, smarter individuals are more likely to engage and excel in these fields.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Conclusions and Future Directions · hedged
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSimons et al. (2016) observed no convincing evidence about the alleged generalized benefits of brain-training programs.
“In their systematic review, Simons et al. (2016) observe that no convincing evidence has been provided so far about the alleged generalized benefits of brain-training programs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Simons et al., 2016
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSpatial ability is malleable by spatial training.
“Spatial ability has been found to be malleable by spatial training (Uttal et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Uttal et al., 2013
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChess skill is statistically significantly correlated with fluid intelligence, processing speed, short-term and working memory, and comprehension knowledge.
“The second meta-analysis (Burgoyne et al., 2016) reported statistically significant correlations between chess skill and four broad measures of cognitive ability”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Burgoyne et al., 2016
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May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAlthough cognitive ability correlates with domain-specific skills, there is little evidence that chess or music instruction makes people smarter.
“Although cognitive ability correlates with domain-specific skills—for example, smarter people are more likely to be stronger chess players and better musicians—there is little evidence that chess or music instruction makes people smarter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf skills rarely generalize across different domains, then the most effective way to acquire a skill is to train that particular skill.
“If skills rarely generalize across different domains, then the most effective way to acquire a skill is to train that particular skill.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSpecific neural patterns and absence of far-transfer effects on cognitive tests have been reported in music, chess, and video game training.
“The occurrence of specific neural patterns (anatomical and functional) and absence of far-transfer effects on cognitive tests have been reported in domains such as music (e.g., Tierney, Krizman, & Kraus, 2015), chess (e.g., Hänggi, Brütsch, Siegel, & Jäncke, 2014), and video game training (e.g., Colom et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Tierney, Krizman, & Kraus, 2015
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- cites Hänggi, Brütsch, Siegel, & Jäncke, 2014
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- cites Colom et al., 2012
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Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
There is an increasing recognition that while domain-specific skills are eminently teachable, purely generic-cognitive skills are not teachable and attempts to teach them lead to dead-ends.
“Nevertheless, there is an increasing recognition that while domain-specific skills are eminently teachable, purely generic-cognitive skills are not teachable and attempts to teach them lead to dead-ends (Sala and Gobet 2017).”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Sala and Gobet 2017
Theoretical and Practical Implications supports teaching domain-specific skills and questions whether training produces broader, domain-general benefits. But it says training does not reliably improve skills beyond those trained—not that generic cognitive skills themselves are unteachable. The Conclusions and Future Directions likewise describes scarce evidence for far transfer rather than proving that all attempts to teach such skills are dead-ends. No page numbers are supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe data summarised by Sala and Gobet (2017) provide a major justification for the post-1998 inclusion of evolutionary psychology into cognitive load theory.
“The data summarised by Sala and Gobet (2017) provide a major justification for the post 1998 inclusion of evolutionary psychology into cognitive load theory.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Sala and Gobet (2017)
There is little evidence from any area that training produces far transfer results.
“Such findings are essential for this area to remain viable but there is little evidence of such results from any area (Sala and Gobet 2017).”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Sala and Gobet 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Working-memory effect does not match its confidence interval
MinorThe reported passive-control effect of 0.18 SD is not centered in its 95% confidence interval: the midpoint of −0.09 and 0.26 is 0.085 SD. The other effect-size intervals in this passage are centered on their estimates to rounding precision.
Reported 0.18 · recomputed 0.085
“the overall effect sizes were 0.18 SD, 95% CI = [−0.09, 0.26], k = 34”
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BackgroundSelf-citationBecoming an expert in the musical domain: It takes more than just practice
Ruthsatz, J. M., Detterman, D. K., Griscom, W. S., & Cirullo, B. A. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.08.003 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Training-induced cognitive and neural plasticity
Karbach, J., & Schubert, T. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00048 · Cited by 127 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Training cognitive function is thought to lead to changes in the neural system, which may account for the improvements on cognitive tests (Karbach & Schubert, 2013).”
BackgroundMosing, M. A., Madison, G., Pedersen, N. L., & Ullén, F. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12306 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Gobet, F. (2016) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-57196-0 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationKarbach, J., & Strobach, T. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42662-4 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Oei, A. C., & Patterson, M. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00113 · Cited by 76 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Finally, Oei and Patterson (2015) have challenged the idea that action-video-game training can improve performance in a broad set of visuo-attentional and cognitive tasks.”
BackgroundXu, C., & LeFevre, J. (2016) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000124 · Cited by 76 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Regrettably, the attempts to obtain such a far-transfer effect have been unsuccessful so far (e.g., Xu & LeFevre, 2016).”
BackgroundThe architecture of the chess player׳s brain
Hänggi, J., Brütsch, K., Siegel, A. M., & Jäncke, L. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.019 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
On the effect of chess training on scholastic achievement
Bart, W. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00762 · Cited by 68 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In the same manner, Bart (2014) suggested that chess requires WM, fluid intelligence, and concentration capacity, and by practicing chess, children improve these abilities in general.”
BackgroundSala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0663-2 · Cited by 56 · cited 3× · see citing works
“The third one (Sala & Gobet, 2017c) was carried out to evaluate the effects of WM training on academic achievement, fluid intelligence, and several measures of cognitive control (e.g., processing speed) in typically developing children.”
BackgroundSelf-citationStructural changes after videogame practice related to a brain network associated with intelligence
Colom, R., Quiroga, M. Á., Solana, A. B., Burgaleta, M., Román, F. J., Privado, J., Escorial, S., Martínez, K., Álvarez‐Linera, J., Alfayate, E., et al. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.05.004 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Sala, G., Burgoyne, A. P., Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.01.013 · Cited by 44 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In the first of our meta-analytic reviews regarding the cognitive correlates of expert performance (Sala et al., 2017), we found that chess players’ overall cognitive ability was superior to that of non-chess players by half a standard deviation, a moderately large effect.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 · Cited by 2,337 · see citing works
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
“…music, and chess) result in limited generalization of benefits to outcome measures of cognitive performance that are not directly tapping into skills, strategies, and knowledge acquired through those activities (Melby-Lervag, Redick, & Hulme, 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Simons et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe impact of shared book reading on children's language skills: A meta-analysis
Noble, C. H., Sala, G., Peter, M., Lingwood, J., Rowland, C. F., Gobet, F. R., & Pine, J. M. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100290 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citationAnnual Research Review: Educational neuroscience: progress and prospects
Thomas, M. S. C., Ansari, D., & Knowland, V. C. P. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12973 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
“The pursuit of techniques to produce general benefits for cognition As we have seen, cognitive training tends to produce only ‘near transfer’, that is, performance improvements to the task trained on or similar tasks, rather than more broadly across cognition (Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundDomain-specific prior knowledge and learning: A meta-analysis
Simonsmeier, B. A., Flaig, M., Deiglmayr, A., Schalk, L., & Schneider, M. (2021) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2021.1939700 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects.
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez Viveros, B. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000314 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“Sala and Gobet (2017b) obtained a similar result while studying effects of music education on literacy ( d (cid:2) (cid:4) 0.07).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA Framework for the Testing and Validation of Simulated Environments in Experimentation and Training
Harris, D., Bird, J. M., Smart, P. A., Wilson, M., & Vine, S. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00605 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“Achieving far transfer of learning that is generalized across domains which are only loosely related to each other is, however, notoriously difficult to achieve (Sala and Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundLifting cognition: a meta-analysis of effects of resistance exercise on cognition
Landrigan, J.-F., Bell, T. R., Crowe, M. G., Clay, O. J., & Mirman, D. (2019) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-019-01145-x · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Cognitive Training: A Field in Search of a Phenomenon
Gobet, F. R., & Sala, G. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221091830 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.008 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis
Aksayli, N. D., Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.003 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“However, it is worth mentioning that the number of CWMT interventions included in these latter meta-analyses is quite limited (19 in Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; four in Sala & Gobet, 2017a) and no conclusive response about CWMT effectiveness can be drawn from these syntheses.”
BackgroundSelf-citationRomán-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M. A., Trainor, L. J., & Lupiáñez, J. (2022) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100436 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“…to explain ” (Sala & Gobet, 2020, p. 9) or “ researchers and policymakers should seriously consider stopping spending resources for this type of research ” (Sala & Gobet, 2017b) seem overpessimistic in light of our results, and upcoming investigation will be essential to clarify this debate.”
ResultCorrelation = causation? Music training, psychology, and neuroscience
Schellenberg, E. G. (2020) · Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000263 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Araújo, D., Lucas, A., Roberts, W., Newcombe, D. J., & Franks, B. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02468 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“The result is that production models seek to explain how far transfer may occur by suggesting that the declarative knowledge base acts as the main source of transfer (Taatgen, 2013), suggesting the efficacy of domain-general cognitive abilities (Sala and Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundExecutive function: association with multiple reading skills
Cirino, P. T., Miciak, J., Ahmed, Y., Barnes, M. A., Taylor, W. P., & Gerst, E. H. (2018) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9923-9 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Frontoparietal theta-gamma interactions track working memory enhancement with training and tDCS
Jones, K. T., Johnson, E. L., & Berryhill, M. E. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116615 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“Studies of cognitive training are plagued with mixed results and report little to no transfer of training gains (Morrison and Chein, 2011; Sala and Gobet, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2019; Schwaighofer et al., 2015).”
Passion, grit and mindset in young adults: Exploring the relationship and gender differences
Sigmundsson, H., Haga, M., & Hermundsdottir, F. (2020) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2020.100795 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Near and far transfer: Is music special?
Bigand, E., & Tillmann, B. (2022) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01226-6 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“All of these points might contribute to underestimating the potential effect size of music training in S&G2020, and when revisiting their data file, we inherited this tendency.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe motivational potency of nostalgia: The future is called yesterday
Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2019) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2019.05.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Musical training, bilingualism, and executive function: working memory and inhibitory control
LaPlume, A. A., Moradzadeh, L., & Wiseheart, M. (2018) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-018-0095-6 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Reviews of bilingual evidence indicate that 80% of the literature yields null effects, with a greater percentage of null results for sample sizes larger than 40 (Paap, Johnson, & Sawi, 2015), in contrast with music where the evidence indicates a small to medium effect size (Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundResultMusic Training and Nonmusical Abilities
Schellenberg, E. G., & Lima, C. F. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032323-051354 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Investigating the Impact of a Musical Intervention on Preschool Children’s Executive Function
Bowmer, A., Mason, K., Knight, J., & Welch, G. F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02389 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Additionally, the credibility of findings has been called into question through a meta-analysis assessing the effect of chess, music and working memory training, where an inverse relationship was found between the size of effect and quality of study design (Sala and Gobet, 2017a).”
BackgroundThe passion scale: Aspects of reliability and validity of a new 8-item scale assessing passion.
Sigmundsson, H., Haga, M., & Hermundsdottir, F. (2019) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2019.06.001 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Sustained Effect of Music Training on the Enhancement of Executive Function in Preschool Children
Shen, Y., Lin, Y., Liu, S., Fang, L., & Liu, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01910 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“It is not clear which mechanisms of musical training affect cognitive ability, but many researchers believe that the transfer effect of musical training involves EF (Hannon and Trainor, 2007; Schellenberg et al., 2008; Jäncke, 2009; Moreno et al., 2014; Moreno and Farzan, 2015; Saarikivi et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet,…”
BackgroundEffects of action video game play on cognitive skills: A meta-analysis.
Bediou, B., Rodgers, M. A., Tipton, E., Mayer, R. E., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2023) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000102 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Neves, L., Correia, A. I., Castro, S. L., Martins, D., & Lima, C. F. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104777 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Training Executive Functions to Improve Academic Achievement: Tackling Avenues to Far Transfer
Gunzenhauser, C., & Nückles, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624008 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Music lessons enhance executive functions in 6- to 7-year-old children
Frischen, U., Schwarzer, G., & Degé, F. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101442 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Nostalgia promotes intrinsic motivation and effort in the presence of low interactional justice
van Dijke, M., Leunissen, J. M., Wildschut, T., & Sedikides, C. (2019) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.12.003 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Zanesco, A. P., Denkova, E., Rogers, S. L., MacNulty, W. K., & Jha, A. P. (2018) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.001 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Passion, grit and mindset: Exploring gender differences
Sigmundsson, H., Guðnason, S., & Jóhannsdóttir, S. (2021) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100878 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Ludyga, S., Pühse, U., Gerber, M., & Herrmann, C. (2018) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2018.1529826 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“In general, the idea that enhanced cognitive abilities following practice transfer to other domains has been questioned as for example, there is no sound evidence for a far transfer of learning following chess practice and working memory training (Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundHallam, S., & Himonides, E. (2022) · Open Book Publishers · doi:10.11647/obp.0292 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
How Artificial Intelligence Can Help Us Understand Human Creativity
Gobet, F. R., & Sala, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01401 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“There is now very strong experimental evidence that skills acquired in a domain do not generalize to new domains sharing few commonalities with the original one (Gobet, 2016b; Sala and Gobet, 2017a), and this conclusion almost certainly also applies to creativity.”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Extraordinary Ordinary: Re‐engineering Multilingualism as a Natural Category
Berthelé, R. (2020) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12407 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Stephens, J. M., Watson, P. W. S. J., Alansari, M., Lee, G., & Turnbull, S. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.569133 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“This longrunning disagreement over far transfer has been sustained for over a century because the empirical evidence for it has also been divided, particularly for knowledge and skills associated with critical thinking and problem-solving (cf. Brown, 1989; Sala and Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundFerrero, M., Vadillo, M. A., & León, S. P. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101566 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Strategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults
Forsberg, A., Fellman, D., Laine, M., Johnson, W., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820915107 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Loui, P., Raine, L. B., Chaddock‐Heyman, L., Kramer, A. F., & Hillman, C. H. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01198 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of the effects of music training on children’s cognitive and academic skills showed small effect sizes in transfer to intelligence, memory, mathematics, phonological processing, and spatial processing, with effect sizes being affected by methodological considerations: smaller effect sizes were generall…”
I am the chosen one: Narcissism in the backdrop of self‐determination theory
Sedikides, C., Ntoumanis, N., & Sheldon, K. M. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12402 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2017) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-017-0280-3 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationPergher, V., Au, J., Shalchy, M. A., Santarnecchi, E., Seitz, A. R., Jaeggi, S. M., & Battelli, L. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.11.008 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Given the controversy surrounding “far” transfer effects to broad cognitive domains or skills relevant to daily living [7,9,47], tDCS may be a useful tool moving forward to increase the signal to noise ratio in this literature.”
MethodCognitive training as a component of treatment of alcohol use disorder: A review.
Nixon, S. J., & Lewis, B. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000575 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Although there are conflicting views regarding the degree to which transfer of training is possible (Owen et al., 2010; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Salminen, Strobach, & Schubert, 2012; Westerberg et al., 2007), it is clear that transfer is facilitated if training and transfer tasks engage common…”
BackgroundEnhanced recognition of vocal emotions in individuals with naturally good musical abilities.
Correia, A. I., Castro, S. L., MacGregor, C., Müllensiefen, D., Schellenberg, E. G., & Lima, C. F. (2020) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000770 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The relationship between bilingual language use and executive functions
Lehtonen, M., Fyndanis, V., & Jylkkä, J. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00178-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Hartanto, A., Chua, Y. J., Quek, F. Y. X., Wong, J., Ooi, W. M., & Majeed, N. M. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-023-02707-3 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…recent findings that failed to find a far-transfer effect in computerized working memory training programs and various other experiential factors (e.g., chess, music, video game) (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Redick et al., 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Unsworth et al., 2015; Wiradhany et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMainert, J., Niepel, C., Murphy, K. R., & Greiff, S. (2018) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-018-9561-x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Berggren, R., Nilsson, J., Brehmer, Y., Schmiedek, F., & Lövdén, M. (2020) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000439 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
How malleable are cognitive abilities? A critical perspective on popular brief interventions.
Moreau, D. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000872 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Replacing tDCS with theta tACS provides selective, but not general WM benefits
Jones, K. T., Arciniega, H., & Berryhill, M. E. (2019) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146324 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Durable memories and efficient neural coding through mnemonic training using the method of loci
Wagner, I. C., Konrad, B. N., Schuster, P., Weisig, S., Repantis, D., Ohla, K., Kühn, S., Fernández, G., Steiger, A., Lamm, C., et al. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abc7606 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“, effects that generalize to untrained tasks dissimilar from the training; (40, 41)].”
BackgroundBombonato, C., Lucchese, B. D., Ruffini, C., Lieto, M., Brovedani, P., Sgandurra, G., Cioni, G., & Pecini, C. (2023) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-022-09574-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…different processes correlated with practiced skills (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2016, 2017), as opposed to near transfers, i.e. post-treatment improvements in tasks that require directly trained processes (Kassai et al., 2019; Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2016, 2017).”
BackgroundMethodThe domain-specific approach of working memory training
Peng, P., & Swanson, H. L. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101035 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Motivational Factors Are Varying across Age Groups and Gender
Sigmundsson, H., Haga, M., Elnes, M., Dybendal, B. H., & Hermundsdottir, F. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095207 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Estrada‐Plana, V., Esquerda, M., Mangues, R., March‐Llanes, J., & Moya, J. (2019) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2018.0051 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“47 Furthermore, the board games used in this research were focused in WM and STM processes and, in a weaker way, in the other EFs.”
Oldrati, V., Corti, C., Poggi, G., Borgatti, R., Urgesi, C., & Bardoni, A. (2020) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-020-09429-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…conducted, but either they focused on game-like CCTP involving only/also adult samples (Bediou et al., 2017) or they addressed children but included also non-computerized training or CCTP with no game elements (Cortese et al., 2015; Karch, Albers, Renner, & Lichtenauer, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2017a).”
MethodResultAssessing the learning and transfer of gaze behaviours in immersive virtual reality
Harris, D., Hardcastle, K. J., Wilson, M., & Vine, S. J. (2021) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-021-00501-w · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Nostalgia, reflection, brooding: Psychological benefits and autobiographical memory functions
Jiang, T., Cheung, W., Wildschut, T., & Sedikides, C. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103107 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Some Evidence on the Cognitive Benefits of Learning to Code
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez-Scherer, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.559424 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Nie, P., Wang, C., Rong, G., Du, B., Lü, J., Li, S., Putkinen, V., Tao, S., & Tervaniemi, M. H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770425 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Review of the Effects of Abacus Training on Cognitive Functions and Neural Systems in Humans
Wang, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00913 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“, 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2019), music learning (Benz et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2017) and chess playing (Sala and Gobet, 2016, 2017).”
BackgroundLi, Z., & Oon, P. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00498-z · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Existing meta-analyses have found that effect sizes vary considerably across various types of learning outcomes (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Scherer et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDoes embedding learning supports enhance transfer during game-based learning?
Bainbridge, K., Shute, V. J., Rahimi, S., Liu, Z., Slater, S., Baker, R. S., & D’Mello, S. K. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101547 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“General transfer is largely agreed to be a myth, as previous attempts to demonstrate it have been unsuccessful or debunked (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901; Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
ResultMusic Lessons and Cognitive Abilities in Children: How Far Transfer Could Be Possible
Degé, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.557807 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“While Benz et al. (2015) reported small enhancing effects on Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2021 | Volume 11 | Article 557807 various cognitive abilities, Sala and Gobet (2017) found no influence ofmusic lessons on cognitive abilities at all.”
BackgroundCognitive Training in Addiction: Does It Have Clinical Potential?
Wiers, R. W. H. J. (2018) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.008 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Does Music Training Improve Emotion Recognition Abilities? A Critical Review
Martins, M., Pinheiro, A. P., & Lima, C. F. (2021) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/17540739211022035 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Leveraging artificial intelligence to improve people’s planning strategies
Callaway, F., Jain, Y., van Opheusden, B., Das, P., Iwama, G., Gul, S., Krueger, P. M., Becker, F., Griffiths, T. L., & Lieder, F. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2117432119 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“The benefits of cognitive training are often limited to tasks that are very similar to the exercises that people practiced on (43, 44).”
BackgroundChamberlain, R., Kozbelt, A., Drake, J. E., & Wagemans, J. P. (2019) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000243 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Socio-affective and cognitive predictors of social adaptation in vulnerable contexts
Neely‐Prado, A., Navarrete, G., & Huepe, D. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218236 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Brooks, S. J., Mackenzie-Phelan, R., Tully, J. L., & Schiöth, H. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.512761 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“org 3 improvements, which critics argue do not elicit significant far transfer effects (27, 47, 48).”
BackgroundScerif, G., Blakey, E., Gattas, S. U., Hawes, Z. C. K., Howard, S. J., Merkley, R., O’Connor, R., & Simms, V. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09824-3 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In contrast, when looking at computerised EF training interventions, number of sessions is not a significant moderator for improvements (Kassai et al., 2019; Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundTorkildsen, J. V. K., Bratlie, S. S., Kristensen, J. K., Gustafsson, J., Lyster, S. H., Snow, C. E., Hulme, C., Mononen, R., Næss, K.-A. B., López-Pedersen, A., et al. (2021) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000688 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Panesi, S., Bandettini, A., Traverso, L., & Morra, S. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10010005 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“2 Two other meta-analytic studies (Kassai et al. 2019; Sala and Gobet 2017) are potentially relevant here.”
BackgroundTimescales of learning in prefrontal cortex
Miller, J. A., & Constantinidis, C. (2024) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-024-00836-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Learning is not an endless boost to WM abilities, either: the effect of training and learning is often specific and far cognitive transfer between WM and other cognitive paradigms is doubtful 73 .”
Boosting Human Decision-making with AI-Generated Decision Aids
Becker, F., Skirzyński, J., van Opheusden, B., & Lieder, F. (2022) · Computational Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1007/s42113-022-00149-y · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“The benefits of training on a simple task rarely transfer to the more complex problems people face in the real world (Sala and Gobet, 2017; Sala et al., 2019; Becker et al., 2021).”
BackgroundPersistent gender differences in spatial ability, even in STEM experts
Сергеевна, Ц. Э., Likhanov, M. V., Budakova, A. V., Akmalov, A. F., Сабитов, И. А., Alenina, E. A., Bartseva, K. V., & Kovas, Y. V. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15247 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“However, other studies did not find such effects [18,19].”
BackgroundMusic and Attention, Executive Function, and Creativity
Loui, P., & Guetta, R. E. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.12 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Overestimation of Action-Game Training Effects: Publication Bias and Salami Slicing
Hilgard, J., Sala, G., Boot, W. R., & Simons, D. J. (2019) · Collabra: Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.231 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationComponents of Active Music Interventions in Therapeutic Settings—Present and Future Applications
Schneider, L., Gossé, L. K., Montgomery, M. A., Wehmeier, M., Villringer, A., & Fritz, T. H. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12050622 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“For example, the authors of this meta-analysis [26] performed a comparison analysis of effect sizes of musical intervention studies that either utilized an active control group or a passive group.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialScience Education and Visuospatial Processing
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Uttal, D. H. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Training-induced cognitive and neural changes in musicians: implications for healthy aging
Hanna‐Pladdy, B., & Menken, M. S. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817422-7.00008-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Domhoff, G. W., & Schneider, A. (2018) · Dreaming · doi:10.1037/drm0000080 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…seems to be limited in its scope according to most researchers, with little or no evidence for improvement on other types of tasks that are outside of tightly related, overlapping domains (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Sala, Tatlidil, & Gobet, 2017, for meta-analyses and overviews of large literatures).”
BackgroundGajewski, P. D., Thönes, S., Falkenstein, M., Wascher, E., & Getzmann, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.586963 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…2008; Karbach and Kray, 2009; Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014; Strobach and Huestegge, 2017), while some studies and meta-analyses questioned the existence of far transfer on nontrained functions (Shipstead et al., 2012; Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala and Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundBrain activations associated with scientific reasoning: a literature review
Nenciovici, L., Allaire‐Duquette, G., & Masson, S. (2018) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-018-0896-z · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Davies, C. E., McGillion, M. L., Rowland, C. F., & Matthews, D. E. (2019) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000919000801 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Driver performance under simulated and actual driving conditions: Validity and orthogonality
Groeger, J. A., & Murphy, G. (2020) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2020.105593 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Blair, M., Goveas, D., Safi, A., Marshall, C., Rosehart, H., Orenczuk, S., & Morrow, S. A. (2021) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2021.102770 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Cognitive and hippocampal changes weeks and years after memory training
Bråthen, A. C. S., Sørensen, Ø., de Lange, A. G., Mowinckel, A. M., Fjell, A. M., & Walhovd, K. B. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11636-4 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Worschech, F., James, C. E., Jünemann, K., Sinke, C., Krüger, T. H. C., Scholz, D. S., Kliegel, M., Marié, D., & ALTENMÜLLER, E. O. (2023) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.16031 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“But in general, research in this area has yielded conflicting results (e.g., Seinfeld et al., 2013; Steele, 2005), including metaanalyses examining music-related far transfer effects on non-musical cognitive functions with unconvincing results (Sala & Gobet, 2017, 2020).”
ResultMasurovsky, A. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/14030 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Studies, such as that by Grönholm-Nyman et al [11], and meta-analyses, such as that by Sala and Gobet [36], have provided evidence against the existence of far transfer from cognitive training studies, but enough positive results exist [5,10] that the debate continues.”
ResultLippolis, M., Müllensiefen, D., Frieler, K., Matarrelli, B., Vuust, P., Cassibba, R., & Brattico, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.982704 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Framing Executive Function as a Construct and its Relation to Academic Achievement
Cirino, P. T. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12360 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_14 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Vita‐Barrull, N., Guzmán, N., Estrada‐Plana, V., March‐Llanes, J., Mayoral, M., & Moya, J. (2021) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2021.0034 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Testing the Effects of 3D Multiple Object Tracking Training on Near, Mid and Far Transfer
Harris, D., Wilson, M., Smith, S. J. R., Meder, N., & Vine, S. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00196 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“As some researchers suggest that far transfer effects may be unlikely in any form of learning (Sala and Gobet, 2017), this more targeted approach may hold the greatest potential for applied use of CT.”
BackgroundDoolittle, P. E., & Byrnes, M. K. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119852865.ch3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Wong, S. S. H. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09739-z · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Yet, far transfer is notoriously difficult to attain and has been argued to occur only rarely, whereas near transfer occurs more often (Detterman, 1993; Sala and Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundThe effectiveness of computerized cognitive training on working memory in a school setting
Wiest, D. J., Wong, E. H., Bacon, J. M., Rosales, K. P., & Wiest, G. M. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3634 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Promoting learning transfer in science through a complexity approach and computational modeling
Saba, J., Hel-Or, H. Z., & Levy, S. T. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09624-w · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Several studies have claimed the difficulty of achieving far transfer (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Denning, 2017) and others have argued that only a very limited degree of far transfer can occur (Chi & VanLehn, 2012; Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
BackgroundHoward, J., Bowden, V. K., & Visser, T. A. W. (2023) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2023.07.006 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…such a finding remains unusual in the training literature where near transfer of skills (between highly similar tasks) is typically the norm (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Woodworth & Thorndike, 1901) and far transfer of skills (between highly dissimilar tasks like video games and driving) is the…”
Background
- Authors
- Sala, G., & Gobet, F.
- Affiliations
- University of Liverpool (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gobet, Fernand
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-10-25
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 515-520
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC5724589
- OpenAlex
- W2766093218
- Cited by
- 309
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 29.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
- Keywords
- far transfer, chess instruction, music instruction, working memory training, cognitive ability, academic performance, expert musicians, brain training, video games, spatial training, active control groups
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