Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Opportunities: Parenting, Programs, and the Reduction of Risk
Open accessAbstract
To date, child sexual abuse (CSA) prevention has relied largely on child-focused education, teaching children how to identify, avoid, and disclose sexual abuse. The purpose of this article is to explore how prevention opportunities can include parents in new and innovative ways. We propose that parents can play a significant role as protectors of their children via two pathways: (i) directly, through the strong external barriers afforded by parent supervision, monitoring, and involvement; and (ii) indirectly, by promoting their children's self-efficacy, competence, well-being, and self-esteem, which the balance of evidence suggests will help them become less likely targets for abuse and more able to respond appropriately and disclose abuse if it occurs. In this article, we first describe why teaching young children about CSA protective behaviors might not be sufficient for prevention. We then narratively review the existing research on parents and prevention and the parenting and family circumstances that may increase a child's risk of experiencing sexual abuse. Finally, we make a number of recommendations for future approaches to prevention that may better inform and involve parents and other adult protectors in preventing CSA.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
6 of 42 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Some children may experience fear, anxiety, and confusion about touches after a prevention program.
“some children may experience fear, anxiety and confusion about touches after a prevention program”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Topping & Barron, 2009 source
- cites Walsh et al., 2015 source
The Harm section reports that a small proportion of children experienced mild, short-term anxiety or fear after participating in a programme. It does not report confusion about touches, and the meta-analysis found no overall increase in anxiety or fear. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Zwi et al., 2008 source
- Premisecitation
Research on health behavior modification indicates that behavior can change when knowledge increases.
“research on health behavior modification suggests that behavior can change through increases in knowledge (Sanders et al., 2000;Wakefield et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Sanders et al., 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wakefield et al., 2010 source
- Interpretationcitation
Parents use various protective practices, such as supervision, monitoring, and involvement, to create external barriers, with direct discussions of abuse prevention only a small part.
“parents use a variety of protective practices (e.g., supervision, monitoring and involvement) to create the external barriers that may keep their children safe from CSA, of which direct discussions of abuse prevention in the home are only a small part.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Babatsikos & Miles, 2015 source
- cites Collins, 1996 source
In “What Protective Strategies Do Parents Employ?” (p. 6), the paper describes supervision, relationships, questioning, and monitoring child care alongside abuse-prevention education. It does not establish that direct discussions were only a small part of parents’ practices: Table 2 (p. 6) lists education for 22 parents (92%), and the discussion on p. 7 says nearly all had talked with their children about safety. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Research indicates that media campaigns can change behavior.
“research suggests that such campaigns can enact behavior change (Sanders, Montgomery, & Brechman-Toussaint, 2000;Wakefield, Loken, & Hornik, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Sanders, Montgomery, & Brechman-Toussaint, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wakefield, Loken, & Hornik, 2010 source
- Premisecitation
Parenting programs that strengthen positive parenting skills have been found effective at improving parent-child interactions, child well-being and other family outcomes.
“Programs that focus on enhancing these parenting skills have been found to be efficacious for improving positive parent-child interactions, child well-being, and a range of other outcomes among families (e.g., Triple P-Positive Parenting Program (PPP) : Prinz, Sanders, Shapiro, Whitaker, & Lutzker, 2009. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) : Chaffin et al., 2004. Circle of Security: Mercer, 20”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
- Interpretationnone given
Teaching young children about CSA protective behaviors might not be sufficient for prevention.
“teaching young children about CSA protective behaviors might not be sufficient for prevention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given
CSA prevention has largely depended on child-focused education that teaches children to recognize, avoid, and report abuse.
“child sexual abuse (CSA) prevention has relied largely on child-focused education, teaching children how to identify, avoid and disclose sexual abuse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Parents can directly protect children by providing strong external barriers through supervision, monitoring, and involvement.
“directly, through the strong external barriers afforded by parent supervision, monitoring and involvement”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Some success has been reported for child sexual abuse media campaigns.
“and some success has been reported with CSA media campaigns (Chasan-Taber & Tabachnick, 1999;Rheingold et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
The outcomes of these parenting programs have not yet been directly tied to preventing child sexual abuse.
“The outcomes of these programs have not yet been directly linked with preventing CSA,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Reported rates of sexual abuse by biological fathers range from 2% to 13%.
“When considering male caregivers, the incidence of sexual abuse by biological fathers has been reported to be between 2% and 13%,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisenone given
Parenting is rarely included in prevention despite growing evidence of its role in child sexual abuse risk.
“Despite mounting evidence of the role of parenting in CSA risk, its inclusion in prevention is scarce.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A large share of parents could be reached through mass media campaigns and public service announcements.
“A large proportion of parents could be reached through mass media campaigns and public service announcements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Child sexual abuse education programs rest on assumptions about children that may limit how well they protect children in abuse situations.
“CSA education programs rest on assumptions about children that may limit their effectiveness at protecting children in abuse scenarios.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In that study, mothers of sexually abused children reported emotional, psychological and relational difficulties that may have affected their parenting and put their children at risk of sexual abuse, regardless of the mothers' own abuse history.
“Regardless of mothers' CSA history, sexually abused children in this study had mothers who were experiencing emotional, psychological and relational difficulties that may have impacted on their parenting and exposed their children to CSA risk (Leifer et al., 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leifer et al., 2004 source
- Premisecitation
Two studies found no support for maternal sexual abuse being a significant risk factor once other childhood adversities such as other maltreatment were taken into account.
“Kim, Trickett and Putnam (2010) nor Zuravin and Fontanella (1999) found evidence to support the hypothesis that maternal sexual abuse is a significant risk factor, when it was considered along with other childhood adversities, such as other forms of child maltreatment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
CSA prevention education programs, whether aimed at children or parents, attempt to address only the fourth precondition.
“CSA prevention education programs, regardless of whether they are aimed at children or parents, attempt to address only precondition four”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Because parents are close to where exposure happens and control who enters the home and who is alone with their child, targeting supervision, monitoring and involvement could substantially affect child sexual abuse risk.
“targeting parenting practices such as supervision/ monitoring and involvement could have a crucial impact on CSA risk (Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015 source
- Premisecitation
Reported rates of sexual abuse by stepfathers and mothers' partners are much higher, between 20% and 30%.
“however reported rates of abuse by stepfathers and mothers' partners is much higher, between 20 and 30% (Sariola & Uutela, 1996;Wyatt, Loeb, Solis & Carmona, 1999;Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis & Smith, 1990; U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 2005;Russell, 1983;Ketring & Feinauer, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Russell, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Ketring & Feinauer, 1999 source
- Premisenone given
Disseminating information is less effective than comprehensive training programs.
“Although information dissemination is not as effective as comprehensive training programs,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Research examining whether treating mothers who survived child sexual abuse changes their children's risk is scarce.
“In addition, there is a paucity of research exploring whether treatment for mothers' CSA reduces or otherwise impacts on the risks for their children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Proactive, involved parenting with suitable monitoring can create safer environments with fewer chances for a child to be approached sexually, groomed or victimized.
“First, proactive and involved parenting with appropriate levels of monitoring can create safer environments in which there are fewer opportunities for children to be approached sexually, groomed or victimized (Leclerc et al., 2011;Smallbone et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Leclerc et al., 2011 source
- cites Smallbone et al., 2008
- Premisecitation
Sexual abuse by mothers or mother-figures is rare, at about 0.8%.
“The rates of sexual abuse by mothers or mother-figures is low (for example, 0.8%; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
It remains highly uncertain how, or whether, a mother's own history of sexual abuse raises her children's risk of child sexual abuse.
“Despite the reported associations between sexual abuse risk and abuse-surviving mothers, the picture of how, and indeed if, a mother's sexual abuse history may place children at risk of CSA is still very uncertain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
A secure, loving relationship between parent and child may also make disclosure more likely.
“A secure and loving parent-child relationship may also increase the likelihood of disclosure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The literature to date indicates that parenting has a crucial role in keeping children safe from victimization.
“Consideration of the literature to date suggests that parenting plays a crucial role in keeping children safe from victimization.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Parents can protect children directly by strengthening external barriers through supervision, monitoring, involvement and communication.
“Parents can play a crucial role as protectors of their children via two pathways: i) directly, by strengthening external barriers through parent supervision, monitoring, involvement and communication,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Parents rely on the media as a major source of information about child sexual abuse.
“Parents utilize the media as a major source of their information about CSA (Elrod & Rubin, 1993)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Elrod & Rubin, 1993 source
- May combine two claims. 17
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationTriple P and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy have both been shown to reduce physical abuse and neglect.
“Significantly, PPP and PCIT have both been shown to be effective in the reduction of physical abuse and neglect (Chaffin et al., 2004;Prinz et al., 2009),”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Chaffin et al., 2004 source
- cites Prinz et al., 2009 source
The Results (Population Outcomes; page unavailable) report that Triple P counties had significantly better outcomes than control counties on substantiated child maltreatment, out-of-home placements, and maltreatment injuries. The paper does not report separate reductions in physical abuse and neglect. PCIT is paired with a separate citation in the citing sentence, so its effectiveness is not attributed to Prinz et al. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenParents can indirectly protect children by promoting self-efficacy, competence, well-being, and self-esteem, which evidence suggests makes them less likely targets and more able to respond and disclose.
“indirectly, by promoting their children's self-efficacy, competence, well-being and self-esteem”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenChild-focused CSA prevention has three limitations: information effectiveness, children's capacity to understand and enact strategies, and unintended outcomes.
“there are three limitations to this prevention approach: i) the effectiveness of information in helping children avoid abuse, ii) the capacity of children to understand and enact prevention strategies and iii) the unintended outcomes for children of CSA education.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenResearch has identified contextual features and parental behaviors - such as drug or alcohol abuse, parental absence, physical or mental ill health, criminality, divorce or separation, conflict and step-families - and parenting practices such as low warmth, insecure attachment, communication difficulties, harsh parenting, and low involvement and supervision, that can raise a child's risk of sexual
“Research on family demographic status, parenting practices, and offspring CSA exposure has identified certain contextual features and parents' behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, parental absence, physical or mental ill health, criminality, divorce/separation, conflict and step-families) and parenting practices (e.g., low parental warmth, insecure attachment, communication difficulties, harsh”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBecause sexual abuse is linked to other forms of child maltreatment, these parenting programs may also reduce child sexual abuse.
“which, due to the link between the incidence of sexual abuse and other forms of child maltreatment, suggests that these parenting programs may also result in a reduction in CSA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Sexual abuse is linked to other forms of child maltreatment.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIt can be inferred that parents who improve communication, involvement and monitoring may lower their child's risk of sexual abuse, although this has not been directly shown.
“Due to what is known about risk factors, it can be inferred that parents who display improvements in parenting practices such as communication, involvement and monitoring may decrease their child's CSA risk, but this is yet to be directly demonstrated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe prevention field has partly acknowledged that parental protection extends beyond discussing sexual abuse with the child to include parenting styles and practices, but most prevention research and initiatives do not yet reflect this.
“Despite some acknowledgement in the CSA prevention field that parental protection goes beyond parent-child discussion of sexual abuse, to include parenting styles and practices, this notion is not yet reflected in most prevention research or initiatives (Mendelson & Letourneau 2015;Smallbone et al., 2008;Wurtele, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenMost practitioners and researchers agree that relying too heavily on child-focused interventions has limited how effective child sexual abuse prevention can be.
“Most practitioners and researchers agree that the over-reliance on childfocused interventions to date has restricted the potential effectiveness of CSA prevention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenParents are urged to talk with their children about protection from sexual abuse, yet research on how effective this is remains lacking.
“however, research into the effectiveness of this approach is lacking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationA large body of literature treats parenting practices as central to child outcomes, which suggests that involved, caring and communicative parenting and strong family relationships can improve children's well-being and confidence and may make them less likely targets of child sexual abuse.
“Second, an extensive body of literature has identified parenting practices as central to child outcomes (see Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015) suggesting that involved, caring and communicative parenting, and strong familial relationships, can improve children's well-being and confidence, which may make them less likely targets for CSA (Elliot et al., 1995;Finkelhor, 1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015 source
- cites Elliot et al., 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Finkelhor, 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningWorking with parents to prevent abuse by non-caregivers, and helping mothers reduce risks from non-biological caregivers, could prevent a substantial majority of child sexual abuse incidents.
“With this in mind, working with parents in preventing CSA perpetrated by non-caregivers and assisting mothers to reduce the risks presented by non-biological care-givers, could assist in the prevention of a substantial majority of CSA incidents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenParent involvement has been advocated since sexual abuse prevention began, but it has not been fully achieved.
“Although advocated from the inception of sexual abuse prevention, the involvement of parents has not been fully realized.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationFinkelhor identified four preconditions for CSA: perpetrator motivation, overcoming internal inhibitions, overcoming external barriers, and overcoming the child's resistance.
“Finkelhor (1984) identified four pre-conditions that must be present for CSA to occur.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Finkelhor (1984)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMothers who survived child sexual abuse have been reported to use more physical punishment, hold poorer views of themselves as parents, and have particular parenting and relationship difficulties, even after other adverse childhood experiences are controlled.
“However, CSA surviving mothers have been found to use more physical punishment and have low views of themselves as parents (Banyard, 1997) and experience certain parenting and relationship difficulties (Roberts et al., 2004) even when controlling for other adverse childhood experiences,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenEducation for young children about child sexual abuse and protective behaviors assumes that children can recognize the nuances of an abusive or exploitative encounter, resist an abuser's manipulations or threats, defy an adult's authority, give up affection, attention or material rewards the abuser offers, and report abuse by someone they may like.
“Education for young children about CSA and protective behaviors is based on the assumptions that children are able to: (a) identify the nuances of an abusive or exploitative encounter, touch, relationship, or situation; (b) psychologically counter the manipulations or threats of an abuser; (c) challenge the authority of an adult;”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenParents can protect children indirectly by fostering the child's competence, well-being and self-esteem, which may make the child a less likely target and better able to respond to abuse and disclose it.
“ii) indirectly, by promoting their child's competence, well-being and self-esteem which may make them less likely targets for abuse and more able to respond appropriately to abuse and disclose when it occurs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationTrust is a public good, crucial for human social interaction and for developing tolerance, fairness, and other-oriented care.
“trust is a public good, a crucial ingredient in human social interaction and an essential basis for the development of tolerance, fairness and other-oriented care and acceptance”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn a study comparing four groups of mothers and children, negative parenting practices were associated with child sexual abuse, whereas a maternal history of sexual abuse itself did not appear to account for it.
“In a compelling study comparing four groups of mothers and their children (non-sexually abused mothers with non-sexually abused children, non-sexually abused mothers with sexually abused children, sexually abused mothers with non-sexually abused children and sexually abused mothers with sexually abused children), negative parenting practices were linked to CSA, but sexual abuse history per se did”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leifer et al., 2004 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningParenting practices may be the most effective target for intervention to prevent child sexual abuse, even though other familial and parental circumstances are significant risk factors.
“Although certain familial features and parental circumstances are significant risk factors for CSA, parenting practices may be the most effective target of intervention efforts for several reasons.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The family and parenting factors associated with CSA risk are modifiable through parent-focused interventions.
“Knowledge of these risk factors can guide and inform the development of parent-focused CSA prevention education programs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Sexual abuse is linked to other forms of child maltreatment.
“which, due to the link between the incidence of sexual abuse and other forms of child maltreatment, suggests that these parenting programs may also result in a reduction in CSA.”
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Parents as protectors: A qualitative study of parents’ views on child sexual abuse prevention
Rudolph, J., & Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.016 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationChild Sexual Abuse: The Need for a Perpetration Prevention Focus
Assini‐Meytin, L. C., Fix, R. L., & Letourneau, E. J. (2020) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2019.1703232 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Overcrowded housing: One of a constellation of vulnerabilities for child sexual abuse
Cant, R. L., O’Donnell, M., Sims, S. A., & Harries, M. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.05.010 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The problematization of child sexual abuse in policy and law: The Indonesian example
Wismayanti, Y. F., O’Leary, P., Tilbury, C., & Tjoe, Y. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105157 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Parents as Teachers: Mothers’ Roles in Sexual Abuse Prevention Education in Gorgan, Iran
Khoori, E., Gholamfarkhani, S., Tatari, M., & Wurtele, S. K. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104695 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Jin, Y., Chen, J., & Yu, B. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.11.029 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Rudolph, J. I., van Berkel, S. R., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Walsh, K., Straker, D., & Campbell, T. (2023) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380231156408 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…extent of parental involvement, the type and nature of interventions targeting parents, the outcomes measured, and the effectiveness of interventions has, to our knowledge, never been systematically reviewed (see Babatsikos, 2010; Rudolph et al., 2018; Wurtele & Kenny, 2010 for narrative reviews).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEducating children through their parents to prevent child sexual abuse in Turkey
Cırık, V. A., Efe, E., & Velipaşaoğlu, S. (2019) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12461 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Ren, P., Yin, G., Li, H., & Jin, Y. (2020) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2019.1709240 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The most recent study also showed that only 50% of parents from the UK and Australia spoke to their children about sexual abuse specifics, and a minority talked about the identity of perpetrators (Rudolph et al., 2018b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialParent-Focused Sexual Abuse Prevention: Results From a Cluster Randomized Trial
Guastaferro, K., Felt, J. M., Font, S. A., Connell, C. M., Miyamoto, S., Zadzora, K. M., & Noll, J. G. (2020) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559520963870 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Leading researchers suggest that parents, situated at the relational level of a comprehensive strategy, have a notable influence on youth behavior and are most proximal to and are most aware of their children’s environments (Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015; Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundA Parent-focused Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program: Development, Acceptability, and Feasibility
Guastaferro, K., Zadzora, K. M., Reader, J. M., Shanley, J. R., & Noll, J. G. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01410-y · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“CSA, like other forms of maltreatment, is likely to occur under a confluence of individual and contextual factors such as parental substance use, parental mental illness, or poor parent-child relationships (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundYusof, R. C., Norhayati, M. N., & Azman, M. Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.909254 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Educate young children on CSA is one approach in the intervention program with assumptions that children can (i) recognize the characteristics of an exploitative or abusive encounter, touch, engagement, or scenario; (ii) psychologically oppose an abuser’s threats or manipulations; (iii) defy the authority of an adult;…”
BackgroundRudolph, J., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Shanley, D. C., Walsh, K., & Hawkins, R. (2018) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2018.1425946 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationChild Sexual Abuse Prevention: Parental Discussion, Protective Practices and Attitudes
Rudolph, J. I., Walsh, K., Shanley, D. C., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211072258 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationOwusu‐Addo, E., Owusu-Addo, S. B., Bennor, D. M., Mensah-Odum, N., Deliege, A., Bansal, A., Yoshikawa, M., & Odame, J. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105997 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Parental Perspectives on Sexual Abuse Prevention: Barriers and Challenges
Livingston, J. A., Allen, K. P., Nickerson, A. B., et al. (2020) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-020-01796-0 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Guastaferro, K., Shipe, S. L., Connell, C. M., Letourneau, E. J., & Noll, J. G. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231158765 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“prevention namely efforts engaging parents (Guastaferro et al., 2022; Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015; Rudolph et al., 2018), those designed for older children (Letourneau et al.”
BackgroundRayment‐McHugh, S., McKillop, N., Adams, D., et al. (2024) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2859 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Malamsha, M. P., Sauli, E., & Luhanga, E. T. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/30350 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Studies have proposed that parents should create home environments where they are engaged and ready to respond to and openly discuss these kinds of topics [20-23].”
BackgroundRudolph, J. I., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Walsh, K. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105680 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationİkican, T. Ç., & Küçük, L. (2020) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12615 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“14 – 16 Families must be able to provide accurate information about sexuality to their children, take precautions against abuse, explain how to behave in situations suggestive of sexual abuse, and detail how and where to report it.”
Evaluation of a School-Based Child Physical and Sexual Abuse Prevention Program
Thompson, E. L., Zhou, Z., Garg, A., Rohr, D., Ajoku, B., & Spence, E. E. (2021) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198120988252 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…sexual abuse prevention programs known to hinder the onset of child sexual abuse perpetration, programs targeting parents as protectors and children’s behaviors associated with identifying, avoiding, and reporting comprise a multilevel approach to reducing child sexual abuse (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
Background“I Have to Watch Them Closely”: Native American Parenting Practice and Philosophies
McKinley, C. E., Lilly, J. M., Liddell, J. L., & Knipp, H. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-02116-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Scheer, J. R., Clark, K. A., Talan, A. J., Cabral, C., Pachankis, J. E., & Rendina, H. J. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105353 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Wurtele, S. K. (2021) · Journal of Criminal Justice Education · doi:10.1080/10511253.2021.1892159 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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“However, parenting and positive parent–child relationships are important protective factors in reducing risks of child sexual violence through improving parental supervision and monitoring and promoting child self-efficacy and wellbeing [43, 44].”
Background(Re)Conceptualizing the role of guardianship in preventing child sexual abuse in the home
McKillop, N., Reynald, D. M., & Rayment‐McHugh, S. (2020) · Crime Prevention and Community Safety · doi:10.1057/s41300-020-00105-7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sánchez, A. D. C., Fávero, M., & Sousa‐Gomes, V. (2022) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-022-00697-9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Moreover, existing studies refer primarily to the concept of sexual abuse and types of abuse that can occur (Rudolph et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2016), overlooking other aspects of great importance such as the types of aggressors and strategies used, the veracity of disclosures, the effects on victims, attribution of bl…”
BackgroundEdwards, K. M., Herrington, R., Edwards, M., Banyard, V. L., Mullet, N. D., Hopfauf, S. L., Simon, B. R., & Waterman, E. A. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22860 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Current Preventing of Child Sexual Abuse: A Scoping Review
Solehati, T., Fikri, A. R., Kosasih, C. E., et al. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11110508 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Côté, P.-B., Flynn, C., Kim, D., Fernet, M., Maheu, J., Gosslin-Pelerin, A., Couturier, P., Cribb, M., Petrucci, G., & Cousineau, M.-M. (2022) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2022.2037804 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“, 2020), some studies show the importance of working with parents to encourage the adoption of protective behaviors such as better supervision and communication, and the creation of safe and caring family spaces (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundZero Tolerance of Children’s Sexual Abuse from Interreligious Dialogue
Pulido, C., Vidu, A., de Mello, R. R., et al. (2021) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel12070549 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Smartphone Apps for Child Sexual Abuse Education: Gaps and Design Considerations
Kabir, M. A., Tasnim, R., Pritha, S. T., Amin, S., & Das, A. (2022) · International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation · doi:10.1504/ijmlo.2023.10049097 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…was devised that inquires about the most important features of a CSA education app such as parents involvement in education, using scenarios that children can relate to, including education about grooming, etc. Studies show that parent’s involvement in the CSA education programs is crucial [12].”
BackgroundGuggisberg, M., Botha, T., & Barr, J. (2021) · Journal of Family Studies · doi:10.1080/13229400.2021.2009366 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Taking a School-Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program to Scale: a Cost Analysis
Shipe, S. L., Guastaferro, K., Noll, J. G., Connell, C. M., Morgan, P. L., & Crowley, D. M. (2022) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-022-01401-4 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“The victim community has a tendency not to enlarge the case, thus it passed over time and avoids stigmatization (Jahnke, 2015; Rudolph et al., 2018).”
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Achieving Comprehensive Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect
Risser, H. J., Svevo-Cianci, K., Karim, E. J., & Morford, A. E. (2019) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-019-00024-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Investigation of fathers' metaphors regarding child sexual abuse in Turkey: A metaphor study
Cırık, V. A., Aksoy, B., & Bulut, E. (2023) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2023.06.030 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program: Reference to the Indonesian Government
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Çocuk Cinsel İstismarını Önleme Programlarında Ebeveyn Eğitimi
Kurtça, T. T. (2022) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.983264 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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Hornor, G., Quinones, S. G., Bretl, D., Courtney, A. B., Herendeen, P., Lewin, L. C., Loyke, J., Morris, K., Schapiro, N. A., & Williams, S. (2019) · Journal of Forensic Nursing · doi:10.1097/jfn.0000000000000243 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rudolph, J. I., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Straker, D., Hambour, V. K., Hawes, T., & Swan, K. (2023) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2023.2222116 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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Examining the Awareness Levels of Parents on Child Sexual Abuse
Berkmen, B. (2022) · Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1177/09731342231156498 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Scroger, M., Draper, R. S., & McQuillan, B. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106805 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Guastaferro, K., Font, S. A., Miyamoto, S., Zadzora, K. M., Walters, K. E., O’Hara, K., Kemner, A. L., & Noll, J. G. (2021) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198121997731 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Given the paucity of evidence-based parent-focused CSA prevention programs (Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015; Rudolph et al., 2018), it is no surprise that there is a lack of information available about providers’ attitudes, beliefs, and self-efficacy of delivering a parent-focused CSA prevention…”
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“Finally, none of the programs incorporated research showing that CSA can sometimes be experienced by the child as a source of warmth, love, comfort, and closeness (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundShin, H., Lee, J. M., Kang, K.-A., & Kim, S.-J. (2019) · Child Health Nursing Research · doi:10.4094/chnr.2019.25.4.435 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Helpingstine, C. E., Murphy, C. A., Bernier, J., Crane, K., & Klika, J. B. (2024) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2023.2300701 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…public and in the field that CSA is an adult issue, meaning that emphasis should be given to approaches and strategies that place responsibility on adults to create safe contexts for children instead of relying on children to protect themselves (Mendelson & Letourneau, 2015; Rudolph et al., 2018).”
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Child Sexual Abuse in Nigeria: Exploring Vulnerability and Prevention from a Policing Perspective
Aborisade, R. A., Adeleke, O. A., Adegoke, N., Urowoli, C. E., Muyideen, O. F., Chineyemba, L. I., & Adedayo, S. (2023) · Journal of Social Service Research · doi:10.1080/01488376.2023.2236141 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Can We Ask Everyone? Addressing Sexual Abuse in Primary Care
Chappell, K. K., Hein, L. C., & Andrews, J. O. (2021) · The Journal for Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.01.017 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
American Parents’ Perceptions of Child Explicit Image Sharing
Seto, M. C., Roche, K. M., Goharian, A., & Stroebel, M. (2022) · Journal of Online Trust and Safety · doi:10.54501/jots.v1i4.75 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Rudolph et al. (2018) found that about half of the parents in their sample talked to their children about child sexual abuse concerns.”
BackgroundGiang, T.-V., Le, D.-H., Nguyen, T.-H., Huynh, V.-S., & Nguyen-Thi, D.-M. (2021) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.55227.2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“, 2011); (2) studies on CSA prevention (Barron & Topping, 2013; Rudolph & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2018; Rudolph et al., 2018); and (3) studies on support, intervention and healing the SAT (Adams et al.”
BackgroundPratiwi, H., Ismail, M., Haida, R. N., et al. (2025) · Journal of Research in Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/02568543.2025.2539874 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cırık, V. A., & Karakurt, N. (2024) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107546 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Exploring the Experiences of Muslim Early Childhood Educators in Teaching Sexuality Education
Pratiwi, H. P., Suyanto, S., & Yarliani, I. (2024) · Jurnal SMART (Studi Masyarakat Religi dan Tradisi) · doi:10.18784/smart.v10i1.2189 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The partnership between parents and educators plays a vital role in overcoming potential barriers in the realm of sexuality education (Rudolph et al. 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialExploring nursing students' awareness about child abuse and neglect
Alnaeem, M. M., Sabra, M. A. A., & Hamdan‐Mansour, A. M. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107430 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Moving school-based CSA prevention education online: Advantages and challenges of the “new normal”
Bright, M. A., Ortega, D. C., David Finkelhor, B., & Walsh, K. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105807 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Analyzing the concept of sexual self-care in preschool children: A qualitative study
Kandi, Z. R. K., Azar, F. E. F., Farahani, F. K., Azadi, N. A., & Mansourian, M. (2023) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_551_22 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“,[28] increasing sexual self‐protection focuses on the child’s ability to report abuse, which is in line with our findings.”
BackgroundResultAli, M. I. (2023) · Journal of Legal Studies · doi:10.2478/jles-2023-0004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Metode Pencegahan Kekerasan Seksual pada Anak Berbasis Orang Tua: Systematic Review
Solehati, T., Kharisma, P. A., Nurasifa, M., et al. (2023) · Jurnal Obsesi Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini · doi:10.31004/obsesi.v7i4.5139 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Pencegahan KSA berfokus pada orang tua merupakan program pencegahan melibatkan parenting, sehingga dapat mengurangi terjadinya resiko KSA (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialChild Sexual Abuse Prevention among a Sample of U.S. Parents
Steedman, L. A., & Jeglic, E. L. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03036-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Çocuk Cinsel İstismarını Önlemede Okul Temelli Cinsel İstismarı Önleme Programlarının Önemi
Kemer, D. Y., & İşler, A. (2021) · Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.22312/sdusbed.885476 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“▪ Yabancılarla güvenli sınır oluşturması gerektiğini öğretilmesini sağlamaktır [9,18,22,30,31].”
Childhood hearing loss: An uncertain context for parenting
Greenhalgh, K. T., Mahler, N., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., & Shanley, D. C. (2022) · Deafness & Education International · doi:10.1080/14643154.2022.2125626 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“, 2015) and child safety programmes (e.g. Dale et al., 2016; Rudolph et al., 2018) may be helpful in these domains.”
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A Scoping Review of Programs to Prevent Child Sexual Abuse in Mainland China
Luan, H., Wan, G., Sun, X., & Niu, J. (2022) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380221137043 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, it is still debated in literature whether the increased knowledge and skills after prevention can transfer to increase the retention of protective behaviors over time and reduce the actual occurrence of CSA (Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialParental engagement in child sexual abuse prevention education in Hong Kong
Xu, W., & Cheung, M. (2023) · Health Education Journal · doi:10.1177/00178969231159968 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Astle, S. M., Spencer, C. M., & Palmer, M. (2023) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-023-00904-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“First, we did not ask about what the conversations about SV topics that parents had with their children looked like (e.g., focused on strangers abducting the children compared SV perpetrated by peers; Rudolph et al., 2018a, b).”
Preventing Child Sexual Abuse in Iran: Mothers Teaching Body Safety to Their Sons
Hokmabadi, A., Khoori, E., Tatari, M., & Wurtele, S. K. (2022) · Payām-i naw. · doi:10.61186/jgbfnm.19.2.31 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Teaching Self-Protection to Students With Disabilities
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Knowledge, Attitudes, Self-Efficacy of Children About Prevention of Sexual Violence Against Children
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PARENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE SEXUAL EDUCATION OF THEIR CHILDREN
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Safe spaces for children: School sanitation and sexual violence
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Algamdi, M. M., Rezq, K. A., Al‐Moteri, M., Almegewly, W. H., Alanazi, J., Alanazi, S., Al-Otaibi, S. T., Alatawi, E., & Alanazi, J. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107634 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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“Child sexual abuse (CSA) prevention should focus on prevention initiatives at different levels of the child’s ecology, including potential offenders and protectors (parents, educators, medical personnel, faith leaders, and community members (Rudolph et al. 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialChild sexual abuse ‒ issues and prevention
Dacka, M. (2022) · Psychologia Wychowawcza · doi:10.5604/01.3001.0015.9114 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Assessment of Effectiveness of School-Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis
Türkkan, T., & Odacı, H. (2024) · Hacettepe University Journal of Education · doi:10.16986/huje.2024.514 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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“Research suggests that programmes designed to train parents in discussing sexual topics openly and accurately can significantly reduce the risk of sexual abuse and foster healthier attitudes towards sexuality among children with disabilities (Rudolph et al., 2017).”
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“Positive parenting is closely associated with healthy parental involvement and good communication that builds trust between parent and child and may promote disclosure [78].”
Sexual development: it’s not just for teens
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Beware of the menacing monsters around us: protecting Malaysian children from sexual abuse
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“…empathetic towards the child, listening intently to what the child is saying, recognising the child ’ s feelings, to avoid treating the child di ff erently than usual, and to seek further help from a mental health professional (Mathews & Collin-Vézina, 2016; Regehr, 1990; Rudolph et al., 2018).”
BackgroundIntegrative review addressing the effectiveness of child sexual abuse preventive interventions
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“These programs are mainly based on psychoeducation and focused on children (Rudolph et al., 2017) with two main approaches: 1. teaching children and adolescents to prevent, recognize, and avoid abuse (Walsh et al., 2015); and 2. guiding adults (parents, teachers, professionals working with…”
Survivor Perspectives of Preventing Child Sexual Abuse: A Multi-level Approach
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“…and efforts should include concrete strategies for parents to implement this knowledge into practice (e.g., identifying clear safety rules; improve openness and comfort with discussing CSA with their child; Babatsikos, 2010; Livingston et al., 2020; Rudolph et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2016).”
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Policy Direction: Focus on Prevention
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“These programmes should include translating the materials, using examples and role plays that are reflective of the dominant cultural mores, and hiring diverse staff to deliver them (Kenny and Wurtele 2013; Rudolph et al. 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychological factors influencing child safety awareness: a study on abduction prevention education
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“Children's self-esteem and independence are essential so that children do not depend on or become attached to others (Burgess, 2014; Kenny et al., 2008; Rudolph et al., 2018).”
Punjani, N. S., Yan, W., Hartling, L. S., Hussain, A., Elgaweesh, F., & Scott, S. D. (2026) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/80968 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Their involvement is the most effective way to create a secure environment where children feel safe and protected [18].”
- Authors
- Rudolph, J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Shanley, D. C., & Hawkins, R.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
- James Cook University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Rudolph, Julia
- Venue
- Child Maltreatment
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-09-18
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 96-106
- ISSN
- 1077-5595 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6119
- OpenAlex
- W2755158923
- Semantic Scholar
- d08a0f44642e191eb3d6cd1404334440d2e4054e
- Cited by
- 154
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 9.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Child Maltreatment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Greenwich Academic Literature Archive (University of Greenwich) (acceptedVersion)
- ResearchOnline - JCU (James Cook University) (submittedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (LP13010030)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Military, Security, and Education Studies
- Keywords
- child sexual abuse prevention, parental involvement, parenting, child self-efficacy, child well-being, children's self-esteem, child disclosure, family situation, protective behavior
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Child, Child Abuse, Child Abuse, Sexual, Education, Nonprofessional, Female, Health Education, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Parenting
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