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Cited by 218Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesMemory Processes and InfluencesCognitive Functions and Memory

Thinking about thinking: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of metacognitive judgements

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Vaccaro, Anthony G., Fleming, Stephen M.·2018·Brain and Neuroscience Advances
DOI 10.1177/2398212818810591PMC PMC6238228
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Abstract

Metacognition supports reflection upon and control of other cognitive processes. Despite metacognition occupying a central role in human psychology, its neural substrates remain underdetermined, partly due to study-specific differences in task domain and type of metacognitive judgement under study. It is also unclear how metacognition relates to other apparently similar abilities that depend on recursive thought such as theory of mind or mentalising. Now that neuroimaging studies of metacognition are more prevalent, we have an opportunity to characterise consistencies in neural substrates identified across different analysis types and domains. Here we used quantitative activation likelihood estimation methods to synthesise findings from 47 neuroimaging studies on metacognition, divided into categories based on the target of metacognitive evaluation (memory and decision-making), analysis type (judgement-related activation, confidence-related activation, and predictors of metacognitive sensitivity), and, for metamemory judgements, temporal focus (prospective and retrospective). A domain-general network, including medial and lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and insula was associated with the level of confidence in self-performance in both decision-making and memory tasks. We found preferential engagement of right anterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in metadecision experiments and bilateral parahippocampal cortex in metamemory experiments. Results on metacognitive sensitivity were inconclusive, likely due to fewer studies reporting this contrast. Finally, by comparing our results to meta-analyses of mentalising, we obtain evidence for common engagement of the ventromedial and anterior dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in both metacognition and mentalising, suggesting that these regions may support second-order representations for thinking about the thoughts of oneself and others.

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  • There is circumstantial evidence for a link between model-based metacognition and mentalizing, with similar developmental trajectories (both emerge around age 3-4) and overlap in neural correlates, particularly in medial prefrontal cortex.

    “There is circumstantial evidence for this link, with similar developmental trajectories (both metacognition and mentalizing emerge around the age of 3-4) and overlap in neural correlates (particularly in the medial prefrontal cortex; Vaccaro & Fleming 2018).”

    From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Vaccaro & Fleming 2018

    The Introduction reports indirect developmental evidence, but gives the age as 4–5 years, not 3–4. The Discussion (‘Comparing metacognition and mentalising’) reports overlap in ventromedial and anterior dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, while noting minimal overlap in other regions. (LLM, conf=0.90)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Regions involved in theory of mind, including vmPFC, dorsomedial PFC, and temporoparietal junction, may support self-models that contribute to model-based metacognition.

    “We can also advance the hypothesis that regions involved in theory of mind-including vmPFC, dorsomedial PFC, and temporoparietal junction-may support self-models that contribute to model-based metacognition (Vaccaro & Fleming 2018, Wittmann et al. 2016).”

    From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Vaccaro & Fleming 2018

    The Discussion (‘Comparing metacognition and mentalising’; page not provided) suggests that medial PFC may support representations of one’s own mental states and reports overlap between metacognition and mentalising in vmPFC and anterior dorsomedial PFC. It identifies TPJ as involved in theory of mind, but says TPJ activation was unique to theory of mind in this comparison, not shared with metacognition. The proposed contribution of TPJ to metacognitive self-models is therefore not supported by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Activity in medial and lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and ventral striatum covaries with judgments of confidence in memory and perceptual tasks.

    “Convergent findings have emphasized the importance of human prefrontal cortex for the fidelity of propositional confidence estimates, with a meta-analysis revealing that activity in medial and lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and ventral striatum covaries with judgments of confidence in memory and perceptual tasks (Vaccaro & Fleming 2018).”

    From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Vaccaro & Fleming 2018

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Authors
Vaccaro, A. G., & Fleming, S. M.
Affiliations
  • Yale University (US)
  • Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging (GB)
Corresponding author
Fleming, Stephen M.
ORCID
Venue
Brain and Neuroscience Advances
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2018-01
Volume
2
Pages
2398212818810591-2398212818810591
ISSN
2398-2128 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1177/2398212818810591
PMC
PMC6238228
OpenAlex
W2901104049
Cited by
218
References
18
Citations by year
2026: 32 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 1
FWCI
1.97
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Brain and Neuroscience Advances (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Wellcome Trust (203147/Z/16/Z, 206648/Z/17/Z)
  • Royal Society (206648/Z/17/Z)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords
metacognition, metamemory, metacognitive confidence, metacognitive sensitivity, neural correlates, prefrontal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, precuneus, insula, mentalization, theory of mind, second-order representation

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