Action information contributes to metacognitive decision-making
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Abstract
Metacognitive abilities allow us to adjust ongoing behavior and modify future decisions in the absence of external feedback. Although metacognition is critical in many daily life settings, it remains unclear what information is actually being monitored and what kind of information is being used for metacognitive decisions. In the present study, we investigated whether response information connected to perceptual events contribute to metacognitive decision-making. Therefore, we recorded EEG signals during a perceptual color discrimination task while participants were asked to provide an estimate about the quality of their decision on each trial. Critically, the moment participants provided their confidence judgments varied across conditions, thereby changing the amount of action information (e.g., response competition or response fluency) available for metacognitive decisions. Results from three experiments demonstrate that metacognitive performance improved when first-order action information was available at the moment metacognitive decisions about the perceptual task had to be provided. This behavioral effect was accompanied by enhanced functional connectivity (beta phase synchrony) between motor areas and prefrontal regions, exclusively observed during metacognitive decision-making. Our findings demonstrate that action information contributes to metacognitive decision-making, thereby painting a picture of metacognition as a process that integrates sensory evidence and information about our interactions with the world.
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Metacognitive sensitivity is often better when confidence judgments are provided after, compared to before, an explicit decision has been made.
“Telltale signs of this effect have been confirmed empirically: Metacognitive sensitivity is often better when confidence judgments are provided after, compared to before, an explicit decision has been made (Pereira et al. 2020, Siedlecka et al. 2016, Wokke et al. 2020)”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Wokke et al. 2020
The Results (Behavior; General results, page unavailable) show higher metacognitive efficiency when confidence judgments followed a response rather than preceded it. But the paper distinguishes efficiency from metacognitive sensitivity (meta-da) and reports no significant difference in sensitivity between conditions in either experiment. Thus the direction of the claim is supported for efficiency, not for the measure it names. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Fleming, S. M. (2016) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.14790 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The unfolding action model of initiation times, movement times, and movement paths.
Calderon, C. B., Gevers, W., & Verguts, T. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000110 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ruby, E., Maniscalco, B., & Peters, M. A. K. (2018) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.04.009 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The motoric fluency effect on metamemory
Susser, J. A., Panitz, J., Buchin, Z. L., & Mulligan, N. W. (2017) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2017.03.002 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
History biases reveal novel dissociations between perceptual and metacognitive decision-making
Benwell, C., Beyer, R., Wallington, F., & Ince, R. A. A. (2023) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.23.5.14 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Competitive Frontoparietal Interactions Mediate Implicit Inferences
Wokke, M. E., & Ro, T. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2551-18.2019 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citation
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1 of the 112 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [67]Fleming SM Action-Specific Disruption of Perceptual Confidence Psychol. Sci. 2014 26 89 98 10.1177/0956797614557697 25425059 PMC4361353 · DOI
- [95]Schuck, N. W., Wilson, R. & Niv, Y. In Goal-Directed Decision Making 259–278 (Elsevier Inc., 2018).
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Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis
Fleming, S. M. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-022423-032425 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
“…(Siedlecka et al., 2016, Pereira et al., 2020, Wokke et al., 2020), with activity in frontopolar and insula cortex, and beta-band synchrony between motor and frontal cortex, hypothesized to mediate the impact of self-actions on metacognitive estimates (Wokke et al., 2020, Pereira et al., 2020).”
Cleeremans, A., Achoui, D., Beauny, A., Keuninckx, L., Martin, J.-R., Muñoz-Moldes, S., Vuillaume, L., & de Heering, A. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.11.011 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationRelationship between metacognitive awareness and motivation to learn in medical students
Siqueira, M. A. M., Gonçalves, J. P., Mendonça, V. S., Kobayasi, R., Arantes-Costa, F. M., Tempski, P. Z., & Martins, M. D. A. (2020) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-020-02318-8 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Modeling perceptual confidence and the confidence forced-choice paradigm.
Mamassian, P., & de Gardelle, V. (2022) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000312 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The neural basis of consciousness
Frith, C. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719002204 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Shekhar, M., & Rahnev, D. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001524 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Partially Overlapping Neural Correlates of Metacognitive Monitoring and Metacognitive Control
Boldt, A., & Gilbert, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1326-21.2022 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Mapping Mind-Brain Development: Towards a Comprehensive Theory
Spanoudis, G. C., & Δημητρίου, Α. (2020) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence8020019 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Response-Related Signals Increase Confidence But Not Metacognitive Performance
Filevich, E., Koß, C., & Faivre, N. (2020) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0326-19.2020 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Pezzetta, R., Wokke, M. E., Aglioti, S. M., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2021) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.01.027 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationDecision making in Parkinson's disease: An analysis of the studies using the Iowa Gambling Task
Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Silveri, M. C., & Antonietti, A. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15497 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Metacognition and confidence: A review and synthesisPreprint
Fleming, S. M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ge7tz · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Perceptual decision confidence is sensitive to forgone physical effort expenditure
Turner, W., Angdias, R., Feuerriegel, D., Chong, T. T. ‐., Hester, R., & Bode, S. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104525 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Confidence in action: Differences between perceived accuracy of decision and motor response
Siedlecka, M., Koculak, M., & Paulewicz, B. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01913-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Measuring the reliability of proxy respondents in behavioural assessments: an open question
Lopez, A., Tinella, L., Caffò, A. O., & Bosco, A. (2023) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-023-02501-z · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Confounding in Studies on Metacognition: A Preliminary Causal Analysis Framework
Paulewicz, B., Siedlecka, M., & Koculak, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01933 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) show subtle signs of uncertainty when choices are more difficult
Allritz, M., McEwen, E. S., & Call, J. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104766 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Temircan, Z. (2023) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1246718 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Metacognition in nonhuman primates: a review of current knowledge
Subias, L., Katsu, N., & Yamada, K. (2024) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-024-01169-x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Making precise movements increases confidence in perceptual decisions
Sanchez, R., Courant, A., Desantis, A., & Gajdos, T. (2024) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105832 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Task-related motor response inflates confidencePreprint
Siedlecka, M., Paulewicz, B., & Koculak, M. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.03.26.010306 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hobot, J., Skóra, Z., Wierzchoń, M., & Sandberg, K. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119991 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Human-like dissociations between confidence and accuracy in convolutional neural networks
Shekhar, M., & Rahnev, D. (2024) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012578 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hobot, J., Koculak, M., Paulewicz, B., Sandberg, K., & Wierzchoń, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.580712 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Gavenas, J., Schurger, A., & Maoz, U. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1162/imag_a_00465 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Online self-evaluation of fMRI-based neurofeedback performance
Muñoz-Moldes, S., Tursic, A., Lührs, M., Eck, J., Benitez-Andonegui, A., Peters, J. C., Cleeremans, A., & Goebel, R. (2024) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2023.0089 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationOverhoff, H., Ko, Y. H., Fink, G. R., Stähl, J., Weiss, P. H., Bode, S., & Nießen, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.969074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Saccenti, D., Moro, A. S., Salvetti, G., Sassaroli, S., Malgaroli, A., Lamanna, J., & Ferro, M. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13071522 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cheruvalath, R., & Chandrakant, S. P. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101670 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Competing Biases underlie Overconfidence and Underconfidence in LLMs
Kumaran, D., Fleming, S. M., Markeeva, L., Heyward, J., Banino, A., Mathur, M., Pascanu, R., Osindero, S., Martino, B. D., Veličković, P., et al. (2026) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-026-01217-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Valzolgher, C., Lever, L., Rosi, T., & Pavani, F. (2025) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-025-02079-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Speech Disfluencies and Hand Gestures as Metacognitive Cues
Yılmaz, B., Reyhan Furman, A., Göksun, T., & Eskenazi, T. (2025) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.70093 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Iannello, P., & Colautti, L. (2023) · RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.3280/rip2022oa15308 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Neural dynamics of metacognitive monitoring: a dual-stage perspective on judgments of learning
Cong, P., Zhang, X., Guo, Y., Long, Y., & Jiang, Y. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07035-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF INFORMATION LITERACY ON FARMERS' TRANSITION TO GREEN PRODUCTION
TIAN, X., SUN, R. Y., & LI, Z. H. (2023) · Applied Ecology and Environmental Research · doi:10.15666/aeer/2104_34453463 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Physical effort modulates perceptual awareness judgment independent of level of processing
Qiu, S., Cheng, X., Cheng, Z., Cao, J., Fan, Z., & Ding, X. (2024) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2024.103746 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Action planning modulates perceptual confidence through action monitoring processes.
Sanchez, R., Davranche, K., Gajdos, T., & Desantis, A. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001774 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The order of task decisions and confidence ratings has little effect on metacognition
Matthews, J., Sugihara, N., Nagisa, S., Ohashi, H., & Shibata, K. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00321-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hernández, J. G. Z., & Barbosa-Santillán, L. I. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12111552 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Partially overlapping neural correlates of metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive controlPreprint
Boldt, A., & Gilbert, S. J. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3dz9b · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mapping Mind-Brain Development: Towards a Comprehensive TheoryPreprint
Δημητρίου, Α. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zgf5p · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Segregated Co-activation Patterns in the Emergence of Decision Confidence During Visual Perception
Jaeger, C., Glim, S., Dimulescu, C., Ries, A., Sorg, C., & Wohlschläger, A. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2020.557693 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Metacognition in putative magno- and parvocellular vision
Pilipenko, A., Torre, J. D. L., Nukala, V., & Samaha, J. (2025) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niaf031 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Neural oscillations of metacognition: evidence for domain-specificity and age-related compensation
Pace, T., Darrant, M., Hermens, D. F., & Andrews, S. C. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf285 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The influence of cognitive conflict on metacognitive judgments
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Towards an integrative neuroscience of metacognition
Fleming, S. M. (2026) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-026-01081-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Environment as a Predictor of Destructive Behavior in Cyberspace
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Exploring the orthogonal relationship between controlled and automated processes
Toner, J., Montero, B. G., & Moran, A. P. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198852261.003.0008
Rasmijn, A. (2022) · doi:10.26481/dis.20220315ar
The Influence of Motor Conflict on Metacognitive JudgmentsPreprint
Guzda, P. J., Siedlecka, M., & Gruszka, A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4870563
Kumar, M., & Soni, S. (2025) · Journal of Cognition and Culture · doi:10.1163/15685373-12340217
Frontal Theta Oscillations in Perceptual Decision-Making Reflect Cognitive Control and Confidence
Parajuli, R., Flynn, E., & Dhamala, M. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16020123
Subconscious information elicits distinct metacognition following Active Decision-Making
Shan, L., Wang, Y., Wu, R., Huang, Y., & Dai, J. (2026) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110660
Valzolgher, C. (2026) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2026.101287
FLEXIBLE METACOGNITION: FROM DIRECT ENGAGEMENT AND DISTANCING TO REGULATION AND REINTEGRATION
Maier, M. L. (2026) · BULETIN ŞTIINŢIFIC SERIA A Fascicula Pedagogie-Psihologie-Metodică · doi:10.37193/bs-ppm.26.07
- Authors
- Wokke, M. E., Achoui, D., & Cleeremans, A.
- Affiliations
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Wokke, Martijn E.
- Venue
- Scientific Reports
- Published
- 2020-02-27
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3632-3632
- ISSN
- 2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7046793
- OpenAlex
- W3009575995
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 4.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Dépôt institutionnel de l'Université libre de Bruxelles (Université Libre de Bruxelles) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- EC | Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (DLV-704361, RADICAL)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Keywords
- metacognition, confidence judgments, response competition, response fluency, color discrimination, functional connectivity, motor areas, prefrontal cortex
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adolescent, Adult, Decision Making, Electroencephalography, Female, Humans, Judgment, Male, Prefrontal Cortex, Young Adult
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