Prevalence and risk factors for selected canine vector-borne diseases in Greece
Open accessAbstract
Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) represent a wide group of diseases of major significance for canine health. In addition to their veterinary importance, many of these diseases are of great zoonotic concern, posing a risk of potential transmission to humans. To date, there has been scant knowledge regarding the prevalence, distribution and risk factors of CVBDs in Greece. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to update the current knowledge on the seroprevalence of Dirofilaria immitis , Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi ( sensu lato ) in dogs in Greece and, furthermore, to assess possible environmental and any other risk factors associated with these infections. A total of 1000 apparently healthy and randomly selected dogs, presented in veterinary clinics, were involved at the national level ( n = 66 municipalities). Serum samples were obtained from each individual dog and were tested using the SNAP ® 4Dx ® Plus kit from IDEXX Laboratories. Possible risk factors were assessed using binary regression models, including dogs’ lifestyle, climatological parameters and the altitude of the region. Overall, 21.8% (95% CI: 19.4–24.5%) of the sampled dogs were found to be seropositive to at least one of the four pathogens examined. The most prevalent pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9). The lowest prevalence (0.1%) was recorded for B. burgdorferi ( s.l. ) where only one dog was found to be positive. Among the examined risk factors, low mean temperature was found to increase the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. ( P ≤ 0.001) and Anaplasma spp. ( P ≤ 0.001), while low minimum temperature increased the prevalence of D. immitis ( P ≤ 0.001). In addition, low total annual rainfall had an effect of the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. ( P ≤ 0.01). Altitude also had a significant effect on the prevalence of D. immitis ( P ≤ 0.05) and Anaplasma spp. ( P ≤ 0.01). To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Greece. It has been evidenced that environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.
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TL;DR
This national cross-sectional serosurvey of 1000 apparently healthy dogs in Greece found that 21.8% were seropositive for at least one of four canine vector-borne pathogens, most commonly *Ehrlichia* spp., *Dirofilaria immitis*, and *Anaplasma* spp. Environmental factors—especially temperature, rainfall, and altitude—and antiparasitic treatment history were associated with seropositivity.
Key findings
- Overall, 21.8% (218/1000, 95% CI 19.4–24.5%) of dogs were seropositive to at least one pathogen; 16.5% were positive for one, 4.7% for two, and 0.6% for three pathogens.
- The most prevalent pathogens were *Ehrlichia* spp. (12.5%, 95% CI 10.6–14.7), *D. immitis* (9.0%, 95% CI 7.8–11.5), and *Anaplasma* spp. (6.2%, 95% CI 4.9–7.9); *B. burgdorferi* (s.l.) was detected in only one dog (0.1%).
- Risk factors included low mean temperature for *Ehrlichia* spp. (P ≤ 0.001) and *Anaplasma* spp. (P ≤ 0.001), low minimum temperature for *D. immitis* (P ≤ 0.001), low total annual rainfall for *Ehrlichia* spp. (P ≤ 0.01), and altitude for *D. immitis* (P ≤ 0.05) and *Anaplasma* spp. (P ≤ 0.01).
- Outdoor lifestyle (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.2–4.4) and lack of recent antiparasitic treatment were associated with *Ehrlichia* spp.; no treatment for >12 months was associated with *D. immitis* (OR 5.8 vs treatment in last 3 months, 95% CI 2.2–15.1); altitude 0–100 masl was associated with *Anaplasma* spp. (OR 7.1 vs 401–900 masl, 95% CI 1.6–31.5).
Methods
- Multicentric cross-sectional study of 1000 randomly selected, apparently healthy dogs older than 6 months, sampled at veterinary clinics across 66 Greek municipalities from 1 January to 31 December 2016.
- Serum samples were tested with the SNAP® 4Dx® Plus kit (IDEXX Laboratories) for *D. immitis*, *Anaplasma* spp., *Ehrlichia* spp., and *B. burgdorferi* (s.l.); dog characteristics were collected by structured questionnaire.
- Stepwise binary logistic regression models assessed risk factors including age, sex, habitat, use, last antiparasitic treatment, altitude, temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind speed.
Limitations
- The paper states possible confounding by region and notes that comparisons among the 66 municipalities were not within scope, so region was not included as a fixed effect; climatic variables were used instead.
- The paper states that documented cross-reactivity prevents species-level identification, so results are reported as *Anaplasma* spp. and *Ehrlichia* spp.
- Evident from the text: the clinic-based sample of apparently healthy, ectoparasite-free dogs may not represent all Greek dogs, and serology cannot distinguish current infection from prior exposure.
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- Findingown data
Dogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for 12 months prior to sampling had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs that had never received antiparasitic treatment (P = 0.03, OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.1-6.7).
“Additionally, the likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was higher for the animals that have not received antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.) for 12 months prior to sampling, when compared to those that had never received antiparasitic treatment (P = 0.03, OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.1–6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for 12 months prior to sampling had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs treated in the last 3 to 6 months (P = 0.001, OR 5.1, 95% CI 1.9-13.9).
“Additionally, the likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was higher for the animals that have not received antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.) for 12 months prior to sampling, when compared to those that had never received antiparasitic treatment (P = 0.03, OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.1–6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Companion dogs had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than hunting dogs (P = 0.002, OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.4-4.6).
“Moreover, companion dogs were more likely to be seropositive for Ehrlichia spp. than hunting dogs (P = 0.002, OR: 2.6, 95% CI: 1.4–4.6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs living in areas with mean temperature < 15.9 °C had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs living in areas with mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C (P = 0.001, OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.4-3.5).
“Regarding the climatological conditions, the likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was higher for dogs living in areas with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C (P = 0.001, OR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.4–3.5) in comparison to dogs living in areas with mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for more than 12 months had a higher likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity than dogs treated in the last 3 to 6 months (P < 0.0001, OR 7.6, 95% CI 2.5-23.8).
“Additionally, the likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity was higher for the animals that had not received antiparasitic treatment for more than 12 months comparing to those that had received treatment in the last 3 months (P < 0.0001, OR: 5.8, 95% CI: 2.2–15.1) and those that had received treatment in the last 3 to 6 months (P < 0.0001, OR: 7.6, 95% CI: 2.5–23.8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Dogs living outdoors had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs living indoors (P = 0.013, OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.2-4.4).
“For Ehrlichia spp., animals that lived outdoors were more likely to be seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. in comparison with those living indoors (P = 0.013, OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.2–4.4).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“First, dogs that were living outdoors had a higher possibility of being seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. when compared to those living indoors (c.2.3 times, P ≤ 0.05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
- Findingown data
Dogs that had never received any kind of antiparasitic treatment had a higher likelihood of Anaplasma spp. seropositivity than dogs treated in the last 3 to 6 months (P = 0.013, OR 3.5, 95% CI 1.3-9.3).
“Finally, the likelihood of Anaplasma spp. seropositivity was higher for the animals that had never received any kind of antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.) compared to the those that had received antiparasitic treatment in the last 3 to 6 months (P = 0.013, OR: 3.5, 95% CI: 1.3–9.3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among the sampled dogs in Greece, 21.8% (218/1000, 95% CI 19.4-24.5%) were seropositive to at least one of the four pathogens examined.
“Overall, 21.8% (95% CI: 19.4–24.5%) of the sampled dogs were found to be seropositive to at least one of the four pathogens examined.”
- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
“Overall, 21.8% (218/1000, 95% CI: 19.4–24.5%) of the sampled dogs were found to be seropositive to at least one of the four pathogens examined in this present study (Table 2).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Overall, according to our results the recorded prevalence of CVBDs in dogs from Greece was high, with 21.8% of the sampled dogs being seropositive to at least one of the tested pathogens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
- Findingown data
The total seroprevalence of Dirofilaria immitis in the sampled dogs was 9.0% (90/1000, 95% CI 7.8-11.5%).
“The most prevalent pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9).”
- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
“Overall, the most prevalent canine vector-borne pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 125/1000, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7%) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 90/1000, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5%) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 62/1000, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9%); the lowest prevalence was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive (0.1%).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
- Findingown data
Dogs living in areas with altitude 0-100 masl had a higher likelihood of D. immitis infection than dogs living in areas with altitude 401-900 masl (P = 0.019, OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.2-8.5).
“In the case of D. immitis infection, dogs that were living in areas with an altitude of 0–100 masl were more likely to be infected when compared to dogs living in areas with an altitude of 401–900 masl (P = 0.019, OR: 3.2, 95% CI: 1.2–8.5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for more than 12 months had a higher likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity than dogs treated in the last 3 months (P < 0.0001, OR 5.8, 95% CI 2.2-15.1).
“Additionally, the likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity was higher for the animals that had not received antiparasitic treatment for more than 12 months comparing to those that had received treatment in the last 3 months (P < 0.0001, OR: 5.8, 95% CI: 2.2–15.1) and those that had received treatment in the last 3 to 6 months (P < 0.0001, OR: 7.6, 95% CI: 2.5–23.8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs living in areas with minimum temperature < −5.5 °C had a higher likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity than dogs living in areas with minimum temperature ≥ −5.5 °C (P < 0.0001, OR 4.5, 95% CI 2.7-7.5).
“Moreover, the likelihood of D. immitis seropositivity was higher for dogs living in areas with a minimum temperature < −5.5 °C in comparison to dogs living in regions with a minimum temperature ≥ −5.5 °C (P < 0.0001, OR: 4.5, 95% CI: 2.7–7.5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The total seroprevalence of Anaplasma spp. in the sampled dogs was 6.2% (62/1000, 95% CI 4.9-7.9%).
“The most prevalent pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9).”
- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
“Overall, the most prevalent canine vector-borne pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 125/1000, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7%) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 90/1000, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5%) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 62/1000, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9%); the lowest prevalence was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive (0.1%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
- Findingown data
The proportion of sampled dogs seropositive to exactly three of the four pathogens was 0.6% (6/1000, 95% CI 0.3-1.3%).
“Moreover, the proportion of dogs that were seropositive against one, two or three parasites was 16.5% (165/1000, 95% CI: 14.3–18.9%), 4.7% (47/1000, 95% CI: 3.6–6.2%) and 0.6% (6/1000, 95% CI: 0.3–1.3), respectively (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The proportion of sampled dogs seropositive to exactly one of the four pathogens was 16.5% (165/1000, 95% CI 14.3-18.9%).
“Moreover, the proportion of dogs that were seropositive against one, two or three parasites was 16.5% (165/1000, 95% CI: 14.3–18.9%), 4.7% (47/1000, 95% CI: 3.6–6.2%) and 0.6% (6/1000, 95% CI: 0.3–1.3), respectively (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs living in areas with mean temperature < 15.9 °C had a higher likelihood of Anaplasma spp. seropositivity than dogs living in areas with mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C (P < 0.0001, OR 4.2, 95% CI 2.3-7.8).
“The likelihood of Anaplasma spp. seropositivity was higher for dogs living in areas with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C when compared to those dogs living in areas with mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C (P < 0.0001, OR: 4.2, 95% CI: 2.3–7.8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs sampled from areas with altitude 0-100 masl had a higher likelihood of Anaplasma spp. seropositivity than dogs living in areas with altitude 401-900 masl (P = 0.010, OR 7.1, 95% CI 1.6-31.5).
“Moreover, dogs that were sampled from areas with an altitude of 0–100 masl were more likely to be seropositive to Anaplasma spp. in comparison with dogs living in areas with an altitude of 401–900 masl (P = 0.010, OR: 7.1, 95% CI: 1.6–31.5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The total seroprevalence of Ehrlichia spp. in the sampled dogs was 12.5% (125/1000, 95% CI 10.6-14.7%).
“The most prevalent pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9).”
- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
“Overall, the most prevalent canine vector-borne pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 125/1000, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7%) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 90/1000, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5%) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 62/1000, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9%); the lowest prevalence was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive (0.1%).”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Specifically, Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%) were the most prevalent canine vector-borne pathogens followed by D. immitis (9.0%) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%); the lowest prevalence was detected for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) (0.1%).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
- Findingown data
The proportion of sampled dogs seropositive to exactly two of the four pathogens was 4.7% (47/1000, 95% CI 3.6-6.2%).
“Moreover, the proportion of dogs that were seropositive against one, two or three parasites was 16.5% (165/1000, 95% CI: 14.3–18.9%), 4.7% (47/1000, 95% CI: 3.6–6.2%) and 0.6% (6/1000, 95% CI: 0.3–1.3), respectively (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
The mean environmental temperature poses a significant risk factor for seropositivity to Anaplasma spp.
“Moreover, the mean environmental temperature poses a significant risk factor for the seropositivity to Anaplasma spp.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Cases of canine dirofilariosis were reported in the Cyclades Islands and Southern Peloponnese.
“cases of canine dirofilariosis were reported in the Cyclades Islands and Southern Peloponnese”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
This is the first time a seropositive dog for B. burgdorferi has been identified in Greece.
“this is the first time a seropositive dog for B. burgdorferi has been identified.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Dogs that did not receive frequent antiparasitic treatment tended to be seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. compared to animals that received them on a regular basis.
“it was found that dogs that did not receive frequent antiparasitic treatment tended to be seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. when compared to the animals that received them on a regular basis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Ehrlichia spp. was the most prevalent pathogen among the examined tick-borne pathogens.
“Ehrlichia spp. was the most prevalent pathogen”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A negative correlation between seropositivity to Anaplasma spp. and the time of the last antiparasitic treatment of the dog was reported.
“According to the results obtained for Ehrlichia spp. and D. immitis, a negative correlation between the seropositivity to Anaplasma spp. and the time of the last antiparasitic (i.e. fipronil, permethrin, etc.) treatment of the dog was reported.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Dogs living in areas with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C were more likely to be seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. than dogs living in areas with a mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C (c.2.2 times, P = 0.001).
“dogs that were living in areas with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C were more likely to be seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. than dogs living in areas with a mean temperature ≥ 15.9 °C (c.2.2 times, P = 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Dogs living in regions with a low altitude of 0-100 masl were more susceptible to dirofilariosis compared to dogs living in areas with a high altitude (401-900 masl).
“Altitude was found to be associated with D. immitis infection: dogs living in regions with a low altitude of 0–100 masl were more susceptible to dirofilariosis compared to dogs living in areas with a high altitude (401–900 masl).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The likelihood of antigen detection of D. immitis was associated mainly with the last antiparasitic treatments of the examined animals.
“According to our results, the likelihood of antigen detection of D. immitis was associated mainly with the last antiparasitic treatments (i.e. milbemycin, permethrinor, other antiparasitics with repellent or larvicide activity against Dirofilaria spp.) of the examined animals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Companion dogs had a greater chance of being seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. compared to hunting dogs (c.2.6 times, P = 0.002).
“we found that that companion dogs had a greater chance of being seropositive to Ehrlichia spp. when compared to hunting dogs (c.2.6 times, P = 0.002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Altitude of a region significantly affects the likelihood of seropositivity to Anaplasma spp.
“Altitude of a region significantly affects the likelihood of seropositivity to Anaplasma spp.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The overall antigen seropositivity of D. immitis was 9.0%.
“The second most frequent canine vector-borne pathogen detected in our study was D. immitis with an overall antigen seropositivity of 9.0%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The prevalence of B. burgdorferi infection detected in dogs is low.
“It should be noted that the prevalence of infection detected in dogs is low.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The overall prevalence of A. platys and/or A. phagocytophilum seropositivity was 6.2%.
“It was found that the overall prevalence of A. platys and/or A. phagocytophilum seropositivity was 6.2%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was associated mainly with the lifestyle of dogs and the antiparasitic scheme followed by the owner.
“According to our findings, the likelihood of seropositivity to Ehrlichia spp. was associated mainly with the lifestyle of dogs and the antiparasitic scheme followed by the owner.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.
“It has been evidenced that environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Unprotected animals are more susceptible to vector-borne infections.
“It can be concluded that unprotected animals are more susceptible to vector-borne infections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The likelihood of transmission of Ehrlichia spp. is probably higher than that of the other examined tick-borne pathogens.
“therefore the likelihood of its transmission is probably higher than that of the other examined tick-borne pathogens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Animals living outdoors and receiving only occasionally or no antiparasitic treatments are prone to infections with canine vector-borne pathogens.
“Our results suggest that animals living outdoors and receiving only occasionally or no antiparasitic treatments are prone to infections with canine vector-borne pathogens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Climate is a substantial factor for the survival and spread of arthropod vectors and subsequently for the distribution of CVBDs.
“Climate is a substantial factor considering the survival and spread of arthropod vectors and subsequently the distribution of CVBDs [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Beugnet F, Chalvet-Monfray K. Impact of climate change in the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases in domestic carnivores. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;36:559–66. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Unprotected animals are at a significant risk of acquiring any of the CVBDs.
“This result underlines that unprotected animals are at a significant risk of acquiring any of the CVBDs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
I. ricinus, the main vector of B. burgdorferi, is very rare in Greece.
“I. ricinus that is the main vector of B. burgdorferi is very rare in Greece [42].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] Latrofa MS, Angelou A, Giannelli A, Annoscia G, Ravagnan S, Dantas-Torres F, et al. Ticks and associated pathogens in dogs from Greece. Parasit Vectors. 2017;10:301. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The association between climatological conditions, altitude and seroprevalence of canine dirofilariosis has been assessed for the first time in Greece.
“In the present study, the association between climatological conditions, altitude and seroprevalence of canine dirofilariosis has been assessed for the first time in Greece.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
There is a possible spread southward of canine dirofilariosis.
“thus indicating a possible spread southward.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In Greece, the climate is expected to evolve towards more tropical climates characterized by an extended dry and hot season.
“In Greece, according to the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the climate is expected to evolve towards more tropical climates characterized by an extended dry and hot season [16], and this may affect the distribution of CVBDs [17] in the country.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] Kovats RS, Valentini R, Bouwer LM, Georgopoulou E, Jacob D, Martin E, et al. Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: Regional aspects. In: Contribution of working group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2014. p. 1267–326.
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Animals that received few antiparasitic treatments were more likely to be infested by ticks.
“the present result indicates that animals that received few antiparasitic treatments (including ectoparasiticides, i.e. fipronil and permethrin) were more likely to be infested by ticks”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Mean and minimum temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.
“Among the examined climatologic conditions, mean and minimum temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- May combine two claims. 9
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataDogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for 12 months prior to sampling had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs treated in the last less than 3 months (P = 0.0001, OR 5.6, 95% CI 2.3-13.9).
“Additionally, the likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was higher for the animals that have not received antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.) for 12 months prior to sampling, when compared to those that had never received antiparasitic treatment (P = 0.03, OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.1–6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataDogs that had not received antiparasitic treatment for 12 months prior to sampling had a higher likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity than dogs treated in the last 6 to 12 months (P = 0.007, OR 5.6, 95% CI 1.6-19.6).
“Additionally, the likelihood of Ehrlichia spp. seropositivity was higher for the animals that have not received antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.) for 12 months prior to sampling, when compared to those that had never received antiparasitic treatment (P = 0.03, OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.1–6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe seroprevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) in the sampled dogs was 0.1%, with only one dog positive.
“The lowest prevalence (0.1%) was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive.”
- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
“Overall, the most prevalent canine vector-borne pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 125/1000, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7%) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 90/1000, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5%) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 62/1000, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9%); the lowest prevalence was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive (0.1%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § Seroprevalence of CVBDs in the studied dog population · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMany CVBDs have been reported in canine populations and in human populations in Greece.
“According to relevant studies, many CVBDs have been reported in canine populations [18, 19], as well as in human populations in Greece [20–22].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [18] Diakou A, Kapantaidakis E, Tamvakis A, Giannakis V, Strus N. Dirofilaria infections in dogs in different areas of Greece. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9:508. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [19] Mylonakis ME, Koutinas AF, Baneth G, Polizopoulou Z, Fytianou A. Mixed Ehrlichia canis, Hepatozoon canis, and presumptive Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in a dog. Vet Clin Path. 2004;33:249–51. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [20] Chochlakis D, Psaroulaki A, Kokkini S, Kostanatis S, Arkalati E, Karagrannaki E, et al. First evidence of Anaplasma infection in Crete, Greece. Report of six human cases. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(Suppl 2):8–9. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [21] Chochlakis D, Papaeustathiou A, Minadakis G, Psaroulaki A, Tselentis Y. A serosurvey of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in blood donors in Crete, Greece. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;27:473–5. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Daniel SA, Manika K, Arvanitidou M, Diza E, Symeonidis N, Antoniadis A. Serologic evidence of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, Greece. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:643–4. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDogs living outdoors have an increased chance of being exposed to the natural environment of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (s.l.), which is the main vector of Ehrlichia spp. and the dominant tick species in dogs in Greece.
“This result can be attributed to the fact that dogs living outdoors have an increased chance of being exposed to the natural environment of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (s.l.), which is the main vector of this pathogen and also the dominant tick species in dogs in Greece [42].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] Latrofa MS, Angelou A, Giannelli A, Annoscia G, Ravagnan S, Dantas-Torres F, et al. Ticks and associated pathogens in dogs from Greece. Parasit Vectors. 2017;10:301. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataLifestyle appears to have a significant effect on the seroprevalence of Ehrlichia spp. but not on the seroprevalence of the other studied tick-borne pathogens.
“Lifestyle seems to have a significant effect on the seroprevalence of Ehrlichia spp. but not on the seroprevalence of the other studied tick-borne pathogens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe majority of previous studies on CVBDs in Greece focused on single species of pathogens and examined the situation in a restricted area and number of animals.
“However, the majority of the fore-mentioned studies have been focused on single species of pathogens and examined the situation in a restricted area and number of animals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [18] Diakou A, Kapantaidakis E, Tamvakis A, Giannakis V, Strus N. Dirofilaria infections in dogs in different areas of Greece. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9:508. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [19] Mylonakis ME, Koutinas AF, Baneth G, Polizopoulou Z, Fytianou A. Mixed Ehrlichia canis, Hepatozoon canis, and presumptive Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in a dog. Vet Clin Path. 2004;33:249–51. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [20] Chochlakis D, Psaroulaki A, Kokkini S, Kostanatis S, Arkalati E, Karagrannaki E, et al. First evidence of Anaplasma infection in Crete, Greece. Report of six human cases. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(Suppl 2):8–9. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [21] Chochlakis D, Papaeustathiou A, Minadakis G, Psaroulaki A, Tselentis Y. A serosurvey of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in blood donors in Crete, Greece. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;27:473–5. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Daniel SA, Manika K, Arvanitidou M, Diza E, Symeonidis N, Antoniadis A. Serologic evidence of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, Greece. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:643–4. source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenAll sampled dogs were randomly selected and apparently healthy.
“All sampled dogs were randomly selected and apparently healthy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe main tick species that infests dogs in Greece is R. sanguineus, which does not transmit B. burgdorferi.
“the main tick species that infests dogs in Greece is the brown dog tick (R. sanguineus), which does not transmit B. burgdorferi.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] Latrofa MS, Angelou A, Giannelli A, Annoscia G, Ravagnan S, Dantas-Torres F, et al. Ticks and associated pathogens in dogs from Greece. Parasit Vectors. 2017;10:301. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationVectors and pathogens could expand or re-emerge due to climate change.
“Vectors (e.g. Aedes albopictus) and pathogens (e.g. Leishmania infantum, D. immitis) could expand or (re-)emerge due to climate change [12–15].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [12] European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC). Climate change and infectious diseases in Europe. 2010. https://www.leopoldina.org/uploads/tx_leopublication/2010_EASAC_Statement_Climate-change-infectious-diseases_ENGL.pdf . Accessed 10 Mar 2010.
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [13] Cunze S, Koch LK, Kochmann J, Klimpel S. Aedes albopictus and Aedes japonicus—two invasive mosquito species with different temperature niches in Europe. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9:573. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [14] Otranto D, Capelli G, Genchi C. Changing distribution patterns of canine vector borne diseases in Italy: leishmaniosis vs. dirofilariosis. Parasit Vectors. 2009;2(Suppl. 1):S2. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [15] Genchi C, Mortarino M, Rinaldi L, Cringoli G, Traldi G, Genchi M. Changing climate and changing vector-borne disease distribution: the example of Dirofilaria in Europe. Vet Parasitol. 2011;176:295–9. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe reproduction and survival rate of parasitic and viral agents inside vectors and definitive hosts are affected by environmental temperature.
“Apart from the life-cycle of vectors, the reproduction and survival rate of the parasitic and viral agents inside vectors and definitive hosts have also been found to be affected by environmental temperature [11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Semenza JC, Menne B. Climate change and infectious diseases in Europe. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:365–75. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenOur work represents the first attempt to demonstrate the relationships between the seroprevalence of CVBDs and climatological conditions, including altitude.
“our work represents the first attempt to demonstrate the relationships between the seroprevalence of CVBDs and climatological conditions, including altitude.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThere is documented cross-reactivity between A. phagocytophilum and A. platys, as well as reactivity to E. canis, E. chaffeensis and E. ewingii.
“Due to documented cross-reactivity between A. phagocytophilum and A. platys, as well as the reactivity to E. canis, E. chaffeensis and E. ewingii [27], we refer to Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. in the results of the present study (as isolates were not identified to the species level).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] Stillman BA, Monn M, Liu J, Thatcher B, Foster P, Andrews B, et al. Performance of a commercially available in-clinic ELISA for detection of antibodies against Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys, Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia canis, and Ehrlichia ewingii and Dirofilaria immitis antigen in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2014;245:80–6. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationNo genus-level cross-reaction between Anaplasma and Ehrlichia is observed within the SNAP 4Dx Plus device based on the utilization of specific peptides.
“In contrast to the whole-cell antigen present on A. phagocytophilum IFA slides, no genus level cross-reaction between Anaplasma and Ehrlichia is observed within this device based on the utilization of specific peptides [28].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] Pantchev N, Pluta S, Huisinga E, Nather S, Scheufelen M, Vrhovec MG, et al. Tick-borne diseases (borreliosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis) in german and austrian dogs: status quo and review of distribution, transmission, clinical findings, diagnostics and prophylaxis. Parasitol Res. 2015;114(Suppl. 1):S19–54. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe expected climate change in Greece may affect the distribution of CVBDs in the country.
“In Greece, according to the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the climate is expected to evolve towards more tropical climates characterized by an extended dry and hot season [16], and this may affect the distribution of CVBDs [17] in the country.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [17] Dantas-Torres F. Climate change, biodiversity, ticks and tick-borne diseases: the butterfly effect. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2015;4:452–61. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe altitude data from NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission have an accuracy of approximately ± 1.73 m, which has been considered sufficient for similar studies.
“The altitude data of the studied regions were derived from a digital elevation model (DEM) and data collected by NASA’s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) which provides an accuracy of approximately ± 1.73 m. This accuracy level has been considered sufficient for similar studies and has already been used in order to extract geographical information [23, 24].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [23] Nasereddin A, Salant H, Abdeen Z. Feline leishmaniasis in Jerusalem: serological investigation. Vet Parasitol. 2008;158:364–9. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [24] Carvalho LFR, de Melo CB, McManus C, Haddad JPA. Use of satellite images for geographical localization of livestock holdings in Brazil. Prev Vet Med. 2012;103:74–7. source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
This is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Greece.
“To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Greece.”
“To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study conducted in Greece in order to assess the seroprevalence of CVBDs in canine population, which includes a large sample derived from each prefecture of the country and thus generates valuable and resilient data.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Prior to the present study there were no data available regarding the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. in canine populations in Greece.
“To the best of our knowledge, prior to the present study there were no data available regarding the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. in canine populations in Greece.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The SNAP 4Dx Plus test has the stated sensitivity and specificity for the pathogens examined.
“The respective sensitivity and specificity of the test system are 93.2 and 99.2% for A. phagocytophilum, 89.2 and 99.2% for A. platys, 96.7 and 98.8% for B. burgdorferi (s.l.), 97.8 and 92.3% for E. canis, and 98.9 and 99.3% for D. immitis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sampled dogs are representative of the canine population in Greece.
“At least one representative area from each municipality of the country was selected for sampling.”
“All sampled dogs were randomly selected and apparently healthy.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The questionnaire data on dog characteristics, lifestyle and antiparasitic treatment are accurate.
“data regarding the characteristics of the dogs were collected using a structured, case-specific questionnaire including information about age, sex, breed, lifestyle (outdoors, indoors) of the dog and information about the last antiparasitic treatment (endo- and/or ectoparasiticides active against vectors or vector-borne pathogens, i.e. milbemycin, fipronil, permethrin, etc.), as presented in Table”
The paper relies on this without support.
The meteorological data from the nearest station represent the local conditions of each studied region.
“For each studied region, the nearest meteorological station was selected, and its data were used for further analyses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
None of the previous studies have assessed the relationship between climate and the seroprevalence of CVBDs in Greece.
“Furthermore, none of these studies have assessed the relationship between climate and the seroprevalence of CVBDs in the country.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Climatic conditions are significant descriptors of the region.
“we decided to assess climatic conditions (which are significant descriptors of the region) as possible risk factors.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In Greece the climate remains typical mild Mediterranean even in regions with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C, which favors the development of ticks.
“in Greece the climate remains typical mild Mediterranean, even in regions with a mean temperature < 15.9 °C, which favors the development of ticks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mountainous regions with high altitude have low mean temperatures all year round and fewer water catchments, wetlands and valleys, which makes them unfavorable for the development of mosquitoes and the spreading of the disease.
“Mountainous regions with high altitude have low mean temperatures all year round and fewer water catchments, wetlands and valleys, which makes them unfavorable for the development of mosquitoes and, hence, the spreading of the disease.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The majority of regions with low minimum temperature are located in the northern part of the country.
“the majority of regions with low minimum temperature are located in the northern part of the country.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mean environmental temperature acts as a crucial factor for the development and distribution of ticks thereby affecting the distribution of tick-borne diseases, including anaplasmosis.
“mean environmental temperature acts as a crucial factor for the development and distribution of ticks thereby affecting the distribution of tick-borne diseases, including anaplasmosis.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Turkey showed a similar trend, with studies reporting canine heartworm prevalence of 1.5% in Erzurum, 0.6% in Elazig Province, and a general prevalence of 8.5% in different provinces; these studies confirm higher prevalence than those reported 10 years ago.
“Turkey showed a similar trend, studies with prevalence of 1.5% being reported in Erzurum, north-eastern Turkey [96], 0.6% in Elazig Province [97], and a general prevalence of 8.5% in different provinces of Turkey distributed throughout the country [98]. These studies confirm higher prevalence than those reported 10 years ago [2].”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [96]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Anaplasma-positive count does not match Table 2
MajorAdding the Anaplasma-only and co-infection rows in Table 2 gives 61 dogs, not the 62 reported in the results. With 1,000 dogs sampled, the table implies a prevalence of 6.1%, rather than the reported 6.2%.
Reported 62 · recomputed 61
“Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 62/1000, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9%)”
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- Diakou A, Gewehr S, Kapantaidakis E, Mourelatos S. Can mosquito population dynamics predict Dirofilaria hyperendemic foci? In: E-SOVE 2014 the 19th conference Thessaloniki. 2014. p. 76.
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Seroprevalence and current infections of canine vector-borne diseases in Nicaragua
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Evidence of Dirofilaria immitis in Felids in North-Eastern Italy
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SEROPREVALENCE OF SOME VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES IN DOG FROM PLOVDIV, BULGARIA
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Rickettsial Agents Associated with Ectoparasites in Attica, Greece
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AFECCIONES MÁS FRECUENTES EN CANINOS EN CLÍNICAS VETERINARIAS DE LIMA, PERÚ
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Most common vector-borne diseases in dogs in Europe: a review
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Tielemans, E., Antoine, L., Madder, M., Sioutas, G., Beugnet, F., & Papadopoulos, E. (2026) · Parasites & Vectors · doi:10.1186/s13071-026-07595-8
Self-citationSalas-Fajardo, M. Y., Julca, L. A., Guevara, S., Muro, C., & Gomez-Puerta, L. A. (2026) · Veterinary Parasitology Regional Studies and Reports · doi:10.1016/j.vprsr.2026.101569
- Authors
- Angelou, A., Gelasakis, A. I., Verde, N., Pantchev, N., Schaper, R., Chandrashekar, R., & Papadopoulos, E.
- Affiliations
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
- IDEXX Laboratories (Germany) (DE)
- Bayer (Germany) (DE)
- IDEXX Laboratories (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Papadopoulos, Elias
- Venue
- Parasites & Vectors
- Published
- 2019-06-03
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 283-283
- ISSN
- 1756-3305 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6547445
- OpenAlex
- W2948915498
- Semantic Scholar
- bb36106fbe59f37e099e9e5b5b104c88447c56d0
- Cited by
- 68
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 5.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Parasites & Vectors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Bayer Animal Health
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Vector-borne infectious diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Parasitic Diseases Research and Treatment
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Vector-Borne Animal Diseases
- Keywords
- canine vector-borne diseases, seroprevalence, Dirofilaria immitis, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Borrelia burgdorferi, dogs, risk factors, climate, rainfall, altitude, zoonoses, Greece, tick-borne diseases, heartworm infection, Lyme disease
- MeSH terms
- Anaplasma, Anaplasmosis, Animals, Antibodies, Bacterial, Antibodies, Helminth, Bacterial Infections, Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilariasis, Disease Vectors, Dog Diseases, Dogs, Female, Greece, Humans, Lyme Disease, Parasitic Diseases, Animal, Risk Factors, Prevalence, Seroepidemiologic Studies, Ehrlichiosis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia canis
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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