Structuring the Transition From Example Study to Problem Solving in Cognitive Skill Acquisition: A Cognitive Load Perspective
Abstract
Cognitive load research has shown that learning from worked-out examples, in comparison to problem solving, is very effective during the initial stages of cognitive skill acquisition. In later stages, however, solving problems is superior. In this contribution, theoretical analyses of different types of cognitive load and their changes over the stages of skill acquisition are presented. Two basic arguments are put forth: (a) Intrinsic cognitive load gradually decreases so that a gradual increase of problem-solving demands is possible without inducing cognitive overload. (b) In contrast to the earlier stages, different learner activities during the later stages constitute either germane or extraneous load, because different instructional goals are to be achieved. Based on these analyses, we propose a fading procedure in which problem-solving elements are successively integrated into example study until the learners are expected to solve problems on their own. Empirical evidence supporting this fading procedure is provided, and future research is proposed that focuses on how to ensure that the fading procedure is adaptive to the learners' prior knowledge levels.
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Cognitive load effects relevant at the beginning of a longer educational program, such as guided problem-solving and worked examples, are no longer relevant in later stages after learners have acquired sufficient expertise.
“Cognitive load effects that are relevant in the beginning of a longer educational program (e.g. guided problem-solving, worked examples) are no longer relevant in later stages of the program, after the learners acquired sufficient expertise.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Renkl and Atkinson (2003)
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Self-citationPrior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2005) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.022 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Assessment of learners' organised knowledge structures in adaptive learning environments
Kalyuga, S. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1249 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
A hybrid approach to promoting students’ web-based problem-solving competence and learning attitude
Kuo, F.-R., Hwang, G., & Lee, C. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.09.020 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
More confusion and frustration, better learning: The impact of erroneous examples
Richey, J., Andres-Bray, J., Mogessie, M., Scruggs, R., Andres, J., Star, J., Baker, R., & McLaren, B. (2019) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.012 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., DIJCK, G. V., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“This would also shed light on what our finding regarding the expertise reversal effect would entail for a completion or fading strategy (see Renkl & Atkinson, 2003) with less structured tasks.”
Margulieux, L. E., Morrison, B. B., & Decker, A. (2020) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-020-00222-7 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Improved effectiveness of cueing by self-explanations when learning from a complex animation
de Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1661 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Consequently , the high visual search and load associated with selecting essential information should therefore be reduced, thereby increasing working memory resources available for generating meaningful self-explanations (Renkl & Atkinson, 2003).”
BackgroundMoreno, R., Ozogul, G., & Reisslein, M. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021995 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Likourezos, V., & Kalyuga, S. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9399-4 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Campbell, A. E., Davis, G. E., & Adams, V. M. (2007) · Mathematical Thinking and Learning · doi:10.1080/10986060709336603 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Cognitive load researchers (Renkl & Atkinson, 2003) have referred to this process as a “fading procedure” in which “examples are presented before learners are expected to engage in problem solving, or alternatively, examples are interspersed with the to-be-solved problems” (p. 15).”
Backgroundvan Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.006 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Blayney, P., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9105-x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“A suitable procedure could be similar to the faded worked examples that provide a gradual transition from fully worked-out examples to conventional problems ( Renkl and Atkinson 2003 ).”
Learning with augmented reality: Impact of dimensionality and spatial abilities
Krüger, J. M., Palzer, K., & Bodemer, D. (2021) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100065 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The effects of instructional support and learner interests when learning using computer simulations
Yaman, M., Nerdel, C., & Bayrhuber, H. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.05.009 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
University students' achievement goals and help-seeking strategies in an intelligent tutoring system
Vaessen, B. E., Prins, F. J., & Jeuring, J. T. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.11.001 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Curzon, P., Bell, T., Waite, J., & Dorling, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.018 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Learning from Worked-Out Examples and Problem Solving
Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.007 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationFranco, G. M., Muis, K. R., Kendeou, P., Ranellucci, J., Sampasivam, L., & Wang, X. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.06.003 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“The Psycho-Epistemological Profile (PEP; Royce & Mos, 1980) was used to measure participants’ epistemic beliefs. In accordance with Royce’s (1959)multidimensionalmodel, the PEP is designed to measure individuals’ beliefs about how knowledge is derived and justified along three dimensions: empiricism, rationalism, and…”
MethodAccounting for Beneficial Effects of Worked Examples in Tutored Problem Solving
Salden, R. J. C. M., Koedinger, K. R., Renkl, A., Aleven, V., & McLaren, B. M. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9143-6 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“41, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany examples to problems is even more effective than example–problem pairs (e.g., Renkl and Atkinson 2003), (5) that examples that make sub-goals explicit are more effective than those that do not (Catrambone 1998), and (6) that the potential of example-based learning is…”
BackgroundSelf-citationSweller, J. (2007) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch31 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“The guidance fading effect (Renkl and Atkinson, 2003; Renkl et al., 2004) is closely related to the worked example and expertise reversal effects and is also a compound effect.”
BackgroundAligning pedagogy with physical learning spaces
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., McKenney, S. E., Cullinan, D., & Heuer, J. (2017) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12225 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Carpenter, S. K., Endres, T., & Hui, L. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09562-w · Cited by 75 · see citing works
van Gog, T., Liesbeth Kester, A., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9297-3 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Asking learners to complete solution steps (Paas 1992) or increasingly more solution steps (i.e., a fading strategy; see Renkl and Atkinson 2003) could be regarded as a form of testing at a part-task level and is known to be an effective strategy for acquiring problem-solving skills from worked…”
BackgroundZhang, J.-H., Meng, B., Zou, L.-C., Zhu, Y., & Hwang, G.-J. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1943687 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Renkl and Atkinson (2003) claimed that the acquisition of cognitive skills could occur simultaneously in a completely di ff erent learning process, and required a long-term process and great e ff ort in learning.”
BackgroundProgramming Paradigms and Beyond
Krishnamurthi, S., & Fisler, K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.014 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Horn, M., & Bers, M. U. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.023 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Individual versus collaborative problem solving: divergent outcomes depending on task complexity
Sears, D. A., & Reagin, J. M. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9271-8 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Working Memory, Motivation, and Teacher-Initiated Learning
Brooks, D. W., & Shell, D. F. (2006) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-006-0353-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Other researchers have engaged in important related efforts (Renkl and Atkinson, 2003; van Merrienboer and Krammer, 1990).”
BackgroundSuggestions for graduated exposure to programming concepts using fading worked examples
Gray, S., Clair, C. S., James, R., & Mead, J. (2007) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/1288580.1288594 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Biesinger, K. D., & Crippen, K. J. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.013 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The design of the self-explanation prompts was based on the guidelines provided by Renkl and Atkinson (2003).”
MethodWell-Being as a Cognitive Load Reducing Agent: A Review of the Literature
Hawthorne, B. S., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Hattie, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00121 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“, 1998); however, more recent research has shown that this maximum may be even more limited to five plus or minus two chunks of information (Renkl and Atkinson, 2003).”
BackgroundCromley, J. G., Bergey, B. W., Fitzhugh, S. L., Newcombe, N. S., Wills, T. W., Shipley, T. F., & Tanaka, J. C. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.01.003 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
- Authors
- Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Freiburg (DE)
- Arizona State University (US)
- ORCID
- Renkl, Alexander
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 15-22
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W2017974841
- Cited by
- 540
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 23.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- FreiDok plus (Universitätsbibliothek Freiburg) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- cognitive load, worked examples, problem solving, cognitive skill acquisition, intrinsic cognitive load, germane load, extraneous load, fading procedure, prior knowledge, cognitive overload
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