The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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Sorted by citations
Items 1,001–1,100 of 6,869
Limatahu, I., Wasis, W., Sutoyo, S., et al. (2018) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/18.17.812 · Cited by 43
Leuchter, M., Saalbach, H., Studhalter, U., & Tettenborn, A. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1805137 · Cited by 50
Early science learning: The effects of teacher talk
Studhalter, U., Leuchter, M., Tettenborn, A., Elmer, A., Edelsbrunner, P. A., & Saalbach, H. (2020) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101371 · Cited by 56
Improving a Country’s Education
Crato, N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59031-4 · Cited by 59
The domain-specific approach of working memory training
Peng, P., & Swanson, H. L. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101035 · Cited by 45
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Lâ€TMEcuyer, C. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00764 · Cited by 44
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“Likewise, dependent on individual characteristics such as prior knowledge or general cognitive abilities, some students benefit from certain forms of instruction while others may not (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
After the gold rush: toward sustainable scholarship in computing
Lister, R. (2008) · OPUS - Open Publications of UTS Scholars (University of Technology Sydney) · doi:10.5555/1379249.1379269 · Cited by 45
Educational Technologies for Precollege Engineering Education
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Coltheart, M., & Prior, M. R. (2006) · Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties · doi:10.1080/19404150609546820 · Cited by 43
The integration of creative drama into science teaching
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Adaptive scaffolding and engagement in digital game-based learning
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Social media in everyday learning
Klomsri, T., Grebäck, L., & Tedre, M. (2013) · Koli Calling International Conference on Computing Education Research · doi:10.1145/2526968.2526983 · Cited by 42
Fan, L., & Bokhove, C. (2014) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-014-0590-2 · Cited by 44
Change to Competence-Based Education in Structural Engineering
Justo, E., & Trujillo, A. D. (2014) · Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice · doi:10.1061/(asce)ei.1943-5541.0000215 · Cited by 44
Poncy, B. C., McCallum, E., & Schmitt, A. J. (2010) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20514 · Cited by 42
An Ill-Structured PBL-Based Microprocessor Course Without Formal Laboratory
Kim, J. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2011.2156797 · Cited by 42
Elementary Teachers' Learning to Construct High-Quality Mathematics Lesson Plans
Ding, M., & Carlson, M. A. (2013) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/668505 · Cited by 42
“The use of worked examples may facilitate students’ schema acquisition, which enables students to retrieve relevant information to solve new problems, resulting in effective learning (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, 1988, 2006).”
BackgroundKock, Z.-J., Taconis, R., Bolhuis, S. M., & Gravemeijer, K. P. E. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9278-6 · Cited by 45
“For instruction to be successful, the teacher needs to provide sufficient guidance to the class (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Using Multimodal Learning Analytics to Identify Aspects of Collaboration in Project-Based Learning
Spikol, D., Ruffaldi, E., & Cukurova, M. (2017) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · doi:10.22318/cscl2017.37 · Cited by 42
Metcalf, S., Reilly, J., Kamarainen, A. M., King, J., Grotzer, T. A., & Dede, C. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.018 · Cited by 43
Problem-Based Learning Strategy for CAD Software Using Free-Choice and Open-Ended Group Projects
Balan, L., Yuen, T., & Mehrtash, M. (2019) · Procedia Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2019.02.223 · Cited by 46
3D Printing in the Wild: Adopting Digital Fabrication in Elementary School Education
Leinonen, T., Virnes, M., Hietala, I., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Art & Design Education · doi:10.1111/jade.12310 · Cited by 42
Hassinger‐Das, B., Brennan, S., Dore, R. A., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2020) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-060320-095612 · Cited by 53
“When individuals store knowledge in long-term memory, they can retrieve it and can transfer that knowledge to new contexts (Kirschner et al. 2006)—such as applying their knowledge of the Great Lakes to understand how the lake in their local park drains into another body of water.”
BackgroundHeinimäki, O.-P., Volet, S., Jones, C., Laakkonen, E., & Vauras, M. (2021) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2021.100539 · Cited by 56
Argelagós, E., García, C., Privado, J., & Wopereis, I. G. J. H. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104433 · Cited by 66
Multimodal Literacies in Science: Currency, Coherence and Focus
Klein, P. D., & Kirkpatrick, L. C. (2010) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-009-9159-4 · Cited by 43
“Consequently, it is cognitively burdensome for students to generate relevant hypotheses, collect critical data, and draw valid implications, and they often fail to do so (Kirschner et al. 2006; Krajcik et al. 1998).”
BackgroundSituational Interest in Engineering Design Activities
Dohn, N. B. (2013) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2012.757670 · Cited by 44
“According to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), the hint ‘eggs can float in salt water’ represents pseudo-inquiry, because the hint is supposed to lead students to ‘discover’ the principle of measuring density with a hydrometer.”
BackgroundA Constructivist Approach for Digital Learning: Malaysian Schools Case Study.
Sultan, W. H., Woods, P. C., & Koo, A. C. (2011) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 42
Voet, M., & Wever, B. D. (2017) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.12.019 · Cited by 42
Teaching and Learning with Technology
Marino, M. T., Israel, M., Vasquez, E., Fisher, K. M., & Gallegos, B. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781118931837.ch15 · Cited by 42
Wang, H.-S., Chen, S., & Yen, M.-H. (2021) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.020108 · Cited by 52
Solmaz, S., Kester, L., & Gerven, T. V. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11747-z · Cited by 45
“Learning by doing is criticized by educational scientists and found less efficient than traditional instructional designs (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Arega, N. T., & Hunde, T. S. (2025) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70040 · Cited by 41
Multimedia Learning with Simulations and Microworlds
Plass, J. L., & Schwartz, R. N. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.036 · Cited by 49
“Rather than being redundant, as CLT would suggest, information from multiple representations serves different, complementary functions in the learning process (Ainsworth & van Labeke, 2004 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialA step further in Peer Instruction: Using the Stepladder technique to improve learning
Michinov, N., Morice, J., & Ferrières, V. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.09.007 · Cited by 41
Teacher students’ dilemmas when teaching science through inquiry
Krämer, P., Nessler, S. H., & Schlüter, K. (2015) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2015.1047446 · Cited by 47
“Though IBSE oftentimes is associated with open inquiry (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), teachers still may lead, guide, or merely assist pupils through their inquiry process (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007; Hof 2011).”
BackgroundJacobson, M. J., Kim, B., Pathak, S. A., & Zhang, B. (2013) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.792845 · Cited by 42
“To understand current theory and research perspectives about pedagogical guidance, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) provide a critical review of a number of studies of human learning, which they broadly categorize as (a) direct instructional guidance and (b) minimal instructional guidance .”
InfluentialCo-design of interdisciplinary projects as a mechanism for school capacity growth
Kwon, S. M., Wardrip, P. S., & Gomez, L. M. (2014) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/1365480213519517 · Cited by 42
The Impact of Concept Mapping on the Process of Problem-based Learning
Zwaal, W., & Otting, H. (2012) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1314 · Cited by 43
Design Factors for Effective Science Simulations
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Milne, C. E., Jordan, T., Kalyuga, S., Kim, M. C., & Lee, H. (2009) · International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations · doi:10.4018/jgcms.2009010102 · Cited by 42
Developing Young Children’s Emergent Inferential Practices in Statistics
Makar, K. (2016) · Mathematical Thinking and Learning · doi:10.1080/10986065.2016.1107820 · Cited by 45
Jacobson, M. J., Taylor, C. E., & Richards, D. (2015) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2015.1079723 · Cited by 41
“Using the SPS framework, Jacobson et al. (2013) argue that Kirschner et al. (2006) did not consider learning research in terms of Interactive Learning Environments sequencing effects and that they only explicitly discuss studies in the HH and LL sequences of structure categories.”
BackgroundMethodGradually Learning Programming Supported by a Growable Programming Language
Cazzola, W., & Olivares, D. M. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computing · doi:10.1109/tetc.2015.2446192 · Cited by 41
Savin‐Baden, M. (2016) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1588 · Cited by 41
“Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn (2007) argue against Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), who suggested that PBL and inquiry learning are minimally scaffolded and therefore affect effective student engagement.”
BackgroundWhen Instructional Guidance is Needed
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2016) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1017/edp.2016.16 · Cited by 43
Self-citationGuidance Provided by Teacher and Simulation for Inquiry-Based Learning: a Case Study
Lehtinen, A., & Viiri, J. (2016) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-016-9672-y · Cited by 41
“Unguided inquiry learning has been criticized as ineffective and cognitively too challenging for learners (Alfieri et al. 2011; Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundScaffolding beim Forschenden Lernen
Arnold, J. C., Kremer, K., & Mayer, J. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-016-0053-0 · Cited by 61
Azer, S. A. (2017) · Journal of Dental Education · doi:10.21815/jde.016.011 · Cited by 45
Baker, M. A., & Robinson, S. S. (2016) · Journal of Agricultural Education · doi:10.5032/jae.2016.03129 · Cited by 41
“Kirschner et al. (2006) contended, “none of the arguments [against experiential approaches] and theorizing would be important if there was a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating unguided or minimally guided instruction was more effective than guided instruction” (Kirschner…”
BackgroundManipulating cognitive engagement in preparation-to-collaborate tasks and the effects on learning
Lam, R., & Müldner, K. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.05.002 · Cited by 42
Zhang, L. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.01.001 · Cited by 40
Is hybrid-PBL advancing teaching in biomedicine? A systematic review
Jiménez‐Saiz, R., & Rosace, D. (2019) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-019-1673-0 · Cited by 41
“experiential, discovery, inquiry-based learning), are pivotal for higher teaching [3], a number of studies have identified aspects of PBL that are susceptible to improvement [2, 22, 23].”
BackgroundExploring why we learn from productive failure: insights from the cognitive and learning sciences
Steenhof, N., Woods, N. N., & Mylopoulos, M. (2020) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-020-10013-y · Cited by 46
‘Powerful knowledge’, ‘cultural literacy’ and the study of literature in schools
Eaglestone, R. (2020) · Impact · doi:10.1111/2048-416x.2020.12006.x · Cited by 41
“Many advocates for drill turn to a scholarly article by Paul Kirschner and colleagues called ‘Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work’ (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLipowsky, F. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61403-7_4 · Cited by 63
Student outcomes in inquiry: students’ perspectives
Saunders-Stewart, K. S., Gyles, P. D. T., Shore, B. M., et al. (2015) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-015-9185-2 · Cited by 41
Mick or Keith: blended identity of online rock fans
Baker, A. (2009) · Identity in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s12394-009-0015-5 · Cited by 41
“Discussion: blended identity and role embracement Blended identity I: presentation of self in cyberspace, between real and virtual Blended social identity online The concept of “blended learning” has appeared in the literature on online education for years (see e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundNon-STEM Undergraduates Become Enthusiastic Phage-Hunters
Caruso, S. M., Sandoz, J. W., & Kelsey, J. S. (2009) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.09-07-0052 · Cited by 40
“There is currently an ongoing debate in the education community concerning the merits, or possible lack thereof, of inquiry-based courses (Kirschner et al., 2006; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007).”
BackgroundDecker, A., Kunter, M., & Voss, T. (2014) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-014-0227-4 · Cited by 50
“Learners with unfavourable preconditions, such as little prior knowledge, can be over-challenged in a constructivist learning environment and may experience disorientation and mental overload (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
InfluentialDo generational differences matter in instructional design
Reeves, T. C. (2008) · Cited by 41
Brill, J. M. (2016) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9421-6 · Cited by 40
“Learners require guidance, support, practice, and feedback (Clark et al. 2012; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundFleck, S., Baraudon, C., Frey, J., Lainé, T., & Hachet, M. (2018) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/3202185.3202731 · Cited by 44
“In order for a learning to be effective, the learning outcomes, the task to perform and the target field of knowledge should be made explicit to the learner [22; 33].”
BackgroundWillcoxson, L. E., Manning, M. L., Johnston, N., & Gething, K. (2011) · USC Research Bank (University of the Sunshine Coast) · Cited by 40
FOSTERING STUDENT’S CREATIVE AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS THROUGH A HANDS-ON ACTIVITY
Shieh, R.-S., & Chang, W. (2014) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/14.13.650 · Cited by 42
“Some researchers suggested that when the task is novel or when the learners are less experienced with the work, explicit guidance must be provided to assist them in achieving the intended objectives (e.g., Clark, 1989; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFurtak, E. M., & Alonzo, A. C. (2009) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-009-9128-y · Cited by 40
“Learners need adequate information in order to construct knowledge, and providing them with only limited amounts of content will make the formation of their mental representations and schema difficult (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundEly, E., Kennedy, M. J., Pullen, P. C., Williams, M. C., & Hirsch, S. E. (2014) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.07.012 · Cited by 41
An Undergraduate Course to Bridge the Gap between Textbooks and Scientific Research
Wiegant, F. A. C., Scager, K., & Boonstra, J. (2011) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.10-08-0100 · Cited by 40
van Borkulo, S. P., van Joolingen, W., Savelsbergh, E. R., & de Jong, T. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9314-3 · Cited by 42
“Recently, the debate about the effectiveness of constructivist and, in particular, inquiry approaches to learning has gained new momentum (Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Rittle-Johnson and Star 2007).”
BackgroundMethodUribe, M. D. R., Magana, A. J., Bahk, J., & Shakouri, A. (2016) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.21721 · Cited by 40
We knew it all along! Using cognitive science to explain how andragogy works
Hagen, M. S., & Park, S. (2016) · European journal of training and development · doi:10.1108/ejtd-10-2015-0081 · Cited by 74
“Learning is defined as a change in long-term memory (Kirschner et al., 2006) and is key to realizing the principles of andragogy.”
BackgroundBruckermann, T., Aschermann, E., Bresges, A., & Schlüter, K. (2017) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1301691 · Cited by 46
“There is discussion on the instructional quality of inquiry learning for promoting experimentation competency (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPuhek, M., Perše, M., & Šorgo, A. (2012) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/12.11.164 · Cited by 40
Inquiry Based Learning from the Learner’s Point of View: A Teacher Candidate’s Success Story
Caswell, C., & LaBrie, D. (2017) · Journal of Humanistic Mathematics · doi:10.5642/jhummath.201702.08 · Cited by 40
Adler, I., Schwartz, L., Madjar, N., & Zion, M. (2018) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21445 · Cited by 45
Making sense of pragmatic and charismatic leadership stories: Effects on vision formation
Watts, L. L., Steele, L. M., & Mumford, M. D. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.09.003 · Cited by 43
Toward social-transformative education: an ontological critique of self-directed learning
Servant-Miklos, V. F. C., & Noordegraaf‐Eelens, L. (2019) · Critical Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/17508487.2019.1577284 · Cited by 40
Teachers' Experiences of using PRIMM to Teach Programming in School
Sentance, S., Waite, J., & Kallia, M. (2019) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3287324.3287477 · Cited by 42
“This sentiment is echoed by a number of studies with emerging evidence that some of the more difficult concepts such as initialisation, variables and loops need to be explicitly taught [11, 12, 20].”
BackgroundNäykki, P., Laru, J., Vuopala, E., Siklander, P., & Järvelä, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00128 · Cited by 57
“For example, when designing learning with digital tools, it is important that technologies are embedded into the environment and that their use is designed prior the activities but also facilitated during the learning activities (Kirschner et al., 2006; Dillenbourg, 2013).”
BackgroundReviews of teaching methods – which fundamental issues are identified?
Hirsh, Å., Nilholm, C., Román, H., Forsberg, E., & Sundberg, D. (2020) · Education Inquiry · doi:10.1080/20004508.2020.1839232 · Cited by 58
Barak, M. (2020) · Journal of Problem-Based Learning · doi:10.24313/jpbl.2020.00227 · Cited by 40
Inglis, M. (2022) · Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.1080/14794802.2022.2027811 · Cited by 40
Inquiry Learning: Level, Discipline, Class Size, What Matters?
Vajoczki, S., Watt, S., Vine, M. M., et al. (2011) · International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2011.050110 · Cited by 40
“Research has demonstrated that the positive learning outcomes of Inquiry skill development include critical thinking, the ability to undertake independent inquiry, and responsibility for their own learning, intellectual growth, and maturity (Kuhn et al. 2000; Kinkead, 2003; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Overton, T., & Potter, N. M. (2011) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c1rp90036f · Cited by 40
Puterbaugh, B., Rogers, A., Swanson, M., Zeiner, K., Irvine, J., & Kimmons, R. M. (2021) · doi:10.59668/226.3990 · Cited by 40
Tracking middle school students' information behavior via K uhlthau's ISP Model:Temporality
Beheshti, J., Cole, C., Abuhimed, D., & Lamoureux, I. (2014) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.23230 · Cited by 45
“This minimalist guided approach has been referred to by different terms; see Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) for more details.”
MethodThe application of educational technology to develop problem-solving skills: A systematic review
Lu, D., & Xie, Y.-N. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101454 · Cited by 43
Multimodality in Problem-Based Learning (PBL): An Interactional Ethnography
Bridges, S., Botelho, M. G., Green, J., & Chau, A. C. M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2515-7_7 · Cited by 39
Complex Problem Solving and Worked Examples
Schmidt‐Weigand, F., Hänze, M., & Wodzinski, R. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.23.2.129 · Cited by 39
Powell, C. B., & Mason, D. S. (2012) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-012-9383-y · Cited by 39
Gee, K. A., & Wong, K. K. (2012) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.04.004 · Cited by 41
Poon, C.-L., Lee, Y., Tan, A., et al. (2010) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-010-9199-9 · Cited by 39
O'Connor, J., Jeanes, R., & Alfrey, L. (2016) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2014.990368 · Cited by 42
Baroody, A. J., Eiland, M. D., Purpura, D. J., & Reid, E. E. (2013) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831212473349 · Cited by 40
“(a) Consistent with Alfieri et al. (2011) and Kirschner et al.’s (2006) reviews, is guided but implicit add-1 discovery learning more effective than unguided training in promoting fluency with practiced n 1 1 or 1 1 n combinations?”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSignature pedagogies in outdoor education
Thomas, G. J. (2015) · Asia-Pacific Journal of Health Sport and Physical Education · doi:10.1080/18377122.2015.1051264 · Cited by 49
Reflecting on experiential learning in marketing education
Brennan, R. (2014) · The Marketing Review · doi:10.1362/146934714x13948909473266 · Cited by 39
An inquiry-based approach of traditional ‘step-by-step’ experiments
Szalay, L., & Tóth, Z. (2016) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c6rp00044d · Cited by 39
Reinventing discovery learning: a field-wide research program
Abrahamson, D., & Kapur, M. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9444-y · Cited by 39
“1997), has led to vitriolic critiques of instructional methodology inspired by the constructivist world view (Kirschner et al. 2006; Kirschner and van Merriënboer 2013; Klahr 2010).”
BackgroundMethodNorton, S. J. (2018) · Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10857-018-9401-y · Cited by 39
“The guiding pedagogical approach was dominated by explicit instruction to take account of cognitive load theory (e.g., Chen et al. 2016; Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLaksana, D. N. L., Dasna, I. W., & Degeng, I. N. S. (2019) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/19.18.51 · Cited by 38
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have pointed out another reason for the importance of guidance stating that students learn a little amount through a constructivist approach.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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