The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,401–1,500 of 6,869
Development of student knowledge in competence-based pre-vocational secondary education
Koopman, M., Teune, P., & Beijaard, D. (2011) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-011-9092-0 · Cited by 30
Online Searching in PBL Tutorials
Jin, J., Bridges, S., Botelho, M. G., et al. (2015) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1514 · Cited by 29
“Kirschner et al. (2006) indicated concern that, as an inquirybased process, PBL does not provide sufficient scaffolding for learning.”
Schmidt, H. G., Muijtjens, A. M. M., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Norman, G. R. (2012) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e318249591a · Cited by 28
Zimbardi, K., Bugarc̀ić, A., Colthorpe, K. L., et al. (2013) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00082.2012 · Cited by 29
“Indeed, the degree of guidance and ownership provided to students during inquiry-based classes has been shown to have a significant impact on the learning outcomes that students achieve (14).”
BackgroundINITIATIVES TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING: A REVIEW OF RECENT LITERATURE
Barrett, A. M., Ali, S., Clegg, J. R., et al. (2008) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 29
Novel, Multimodal Approach for Basic Transesophageal Echocardiographic Teaching
Mitchell, J., Mahmood, F. U., Bose, R. R., Hess, P. E., Wong, V., & Matyal, R. (2014) · Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia · doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2014.01.006 · Cited by 29
Crowdsourcing Higher Education: A Design Proposal for Distributed Learning
Anderson, M. R. (2011) · Cited by 29
Fleming, J., Gibson, R., Anderson, M. R., Martin, A. J., & Sudmalis, D. (2015) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2015.1064097 · Cited by 34
Analysing Mathematics Teachers’ TPACK Through Observation of Practice
Patahuddin, S. M., Lowrie, T. J., & Dalgarno, B. (2016) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-016-0305-2 · Cited by 29
“Arguably, such an approach is reasonable as long as sufficient guidance is provided during the exploration activity (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundGame-based situation awareness training for child and adult cyclists
Lehtonen, E., Airaksinen, J., Kanerva, K., Anna, R., Ränninranta, R., & Åberg, V. (2017) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.160823 · Cited by 29
“However, for training purposes, it might be even beneficial that the game does not have dual-task components present in real cycling because those could impair learning by overloading children’s WMC [59].”
BackgroundInfluentialPreparation for Future Collaboration: Cognitively Preparing for Learning From Collaboration
Lam, R., & Kapur, M. (2017) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2017.1386156 · Cited by 29
Self-Generation in the Context of Inquiry-Based Learning
Kaiser, I., Mayer, J., & Malai, D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02440 · Cited by 34
Review of Feedback in Digital Applications – Does the Feedback They Provide Support Learning?
Tärning, B. (2018) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/4104 · Cited by 29
Xing, W., Popov, V., Zhu, G., Horwitz, P., & McIntyre, C. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.022 · Cited by 29
Students’ achievement emotions in university courses – does the teaching approach matter?
Jacob, B., Hofmann, F., Stephan, M., Fuchs, K., Markus, S., & Gläser‐Zikuda, M. (2019) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2019.1665324 · Cited by 33
Lou, A. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2019) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21596 · Cited by 38
Odongo, C. O., & Talbert‐Slagle, K. (2019) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-019-1845-y · Cited by 32
INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION AS A REVISION STRATEGY
Сотакова, І., Ganajová, M., & Babinčáková, M. (2020) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/20.19.499 · Cited by 31
“, 2008), developing cognitive and scientific skills (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2008; Brickman et al., 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006; Lederman et al., 2014; McLoughlin et al., 2012), promoting motivation and interest (Rocard et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWright, S., Dean, K. L., & Forray, J. M. (2021) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-021-00720-9 · Cited by 30
El efecto del Aprendizaje Basado en Proyectos en el rendimiento académico de los estudiantes
Arcaya, F. A. B., Venegas‐Muggli, J. I., & Plaza, L. I. (2022) · Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación · doi:10.21703/0718-5162.v21.n46.2022.015 · Cited by 77
Malmberg, J., Haataja, E., & Järvelä, S. (2022) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-022-09320-z · Cited by 36
“For example, when the instructional guidance is minimal, learners are required to draw connections to prior knowledge of similar types of tasks and activities related to those tasks (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLearning by self-explaining causal diagrams in high-school biology
Cho, Y. H., & Jonassen, D. H. (2011) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-011-9187-4 · Cited by 29
Eryilmaz, E., Chiu, M. M., Thoms, B., Mary, J., & Kim, R. (2014) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.08.009 · Cited by 32
Gutiérrez-Santos, S., Geraniou, E., Pearce-Lazard, D., et al. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2012.19 · Cited by 29
“to ensure learning in an open-ended contexts [6].”
BackgroundScience teaching based on cognitive load theory: Engaged students, but cognitive deficiencies
Meissner, B. A., & Bogner, F. X. (2012) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2012.10.002 · Cited by 30
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have – among others (e.g. Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Moreno, 2004) – already demonstrated the importance of such adequately developed guidance that leads learners to identify relevant information and to achieve educational objectives.”
BackgroundTeaching, learning and media use in today’s lectures
Gehlen‐Baum, V., & Weinberger, A. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.049 · Cited by 32
Students’ Preferred Characteristics of Learning Environments in Vocational Secondary Education
Placklé, I., Könings, K. D., Jacquet, W., Struyven, K., Libotton, A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Engels, N. (2014) · International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.13152/ijrvet.1.2.2 · Cited by 35
“…to self-regulate their own learning by providing differentiated help, communicating clear expectations and offering appropriate guidance (Jang et al., 2010; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mouratidisa et al., 2013; Sierens et al., 2009; van Merriënboer and Kirschner, 2013; Vansteenkiste et al., 2012).”
Students' Misconceptions About Medium-Scale Integrated Circuits
Herman, G. L., Loui, M. C., & Zilles, C. B. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2011.2104361 · Cited by 29
Kopp, B., Hasenbein, M., & Mandl, H. (2012) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2012.680964 · Cited by 28
“In this context, it is necessary to consider that when the content and the case solving activities are structured with minimal guidance, this often does not yield the expected learning success (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundApplying Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning in a Transportation Engineering Course
Li, M., & Faghri, A. (2016) · Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice · doi:10.1061/(asce)ei.1943-5541.0000274 · Cited by 29
Expansive Education: Teaching Learners for the Real World
Lucas, B., Claxton, G. L., & Spencer, E. (2013) · Cited by 29
Augmenting Engagement: Augmented Reality in Education
Cabiria, J. (2012) · Cutting-edge technologies in higher education · doi:10.1108/s2044-9968(2012)000006c011 · Cited by 29
Taber, K. S. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33808-8_24 · Cited by 29
Turning Groups Inside Out: A Social Network Perspective
Rienties, B., & Tempelaar, D. T. (2017) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2017.1398652 · Cited by 29
Ruíz-Gallardo, J.-R., & Reavey, D. (2018) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2018.1506988 · Cited by 35
“When students explore new themes by themselves, their understanding can remain superficial (Moust & Schmidt, 1994) and disorganized and can even create newmisconceptions (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundTEACHING PHYSICS WITH SIMULATIONS: TEACHER-CENTERED VERSUS STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACHES
Dervić, D., Glamočić, D. S., Gazibegović-Busuladžić, A., & Mešić, V. (2018) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/18.17.288 · Cited by 28
Stammes, H., Henze, I., Barendsen, E., & de Vries, M. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1717015 · Cited by 25
Lazonder, A. W. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_36 · Cited by 33
Computer-Supported Collaboration Scripts
Weinberger, A., Kollar, I., Dimitriadis, Y. A., Mäkitalo‐Siegl, K., & Fischer, F. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9827-7_10 · Cited by 70
Belpoliti, F., & Fairclough, M. (2016) · Hispania · doi:10.1353/hpn.2016.0045 · Cited by 28
How effective is learner-controlled instruction under classroom conditions? A systematic review
Hauk, D., & Gröschner, A. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101850 · Cited by 35
How replication studies can improve doctoral student education
Schwab, A., Aguinis, H., Bamberger, P. A., Hodgkinson, G. P., Shapiro, D. L., Starbuck, W. H., & Tsui, A. S. (2023) · Journal of Management Scientific Reports · doi:10.1177/27550311231156880 · Cited by 29
“Through undertaking replication studies, students are afforded the opportunity to embark on such independent learning, an approach known to boost self-efficacy, with the proviso that the students possess the pre-requisite baseline knowledge and receive suitable guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundVirtual Reality-Based Learning Environments: Recent Developments and Ongoing Challenges
Ip, H. H. S., & Li, C. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20621-9_1 · Cited by 34
“) is provided to learners [21].”
Augmented Reality Laboratory for High School Electrochemistry Course
Chen, M., & Liao, B.-C. (2015) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) · doi:10.1109/icalt.2015.105 · Cited by 27
“conform to cognitive structure of human beings [12].”
BackgroundOborové didaktiky na vzestupu: přehled aktuálních vývojových tendencí
Janík, T., & Stuchlíková, I. (2013) · Scientia in educatione · doi:10.14712/18047106.3 · Cited by 28
Raes, A., & Schellens, T. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.10.014 · Cited by 28
Seamless Learning Environments in Higher Education with Mobile Devices and Examples
Marín, V. I., Jääskelä, P., Häkkinen, P., et al. (2016) · International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning · doi:10.4018/ijmbl.2016010104 · Cited by 28
Instructional Demonstrations are More Efficient Than Consequences Alone for Children with Naming
Hranchuk, K. S., Greer, R. D., & Longano, J. M. (2018) · The Analysis of Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s40616-018-0095-0 · Cited by 28
“Similarly, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) reported that more learning occurs in the presence of teacher modeling, than in its absence.”
BackgroundGiamellaro, M. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244017700463 · Cited by 46
Predicting Cognitive Load in Future Code Puzzles
Kelleher, C. L., & Hnin, W. Y. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300487 · Cited by 30
“Experience with Sub-problems: While the difculty of a given problem cannot be altered via instructional method, many problems can be broken into sub-problems that are taught individually [45].”
BackgroundKemampuan Pemecahan Masalah Matematis melalui Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah dengan Scaffolding
Jatisunda, M. G., & Nahdi, D. S. (2020) · Jurnal Elemen · doi:10.29408/jel.v6i2.2042 · Cited by 28
Empowerment in outdoor environmental education: who shapes the programs?
Činčera, J., Šimonová, P., Kroufek, R., et al. (2020) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2020.1814205 · Cited by 28
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argue that too much autonomy provided to students who have little prior knowledge results in greater ‘misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge’ (p. 84) and, consequently, compromises the effectiveness of the program.”
BackgroundThe new natural? Authenticity and the naturalization of educational technologies
Dishon, G. (2020) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2020.1845727 · Cited by 30
“While the importance of authenticity in supporting learning has been often criticized (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), and approaches that emphasize direct instruction are still highly in fl uential both in theory and in practice, I suggest that the concept of authenticity has come to…”
BackgroundKaranja, E., & Malone, L. C. (2020) · Journal of International Education in Business · doi:10.1108/jieb-05-2020-0038 · Cited by 41
Pedagogical questions promote causal learning in preschoolers
Daubert, E. N., Yu, Y., Grados, M., Shafto, P., & Bonawitz, E. B. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77883-5 · Cited by 28
Mejeh, M., & Held, T. (2022) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-022-09298-4 · Cited by 65
“Existing suggestions have focused on the evolution of learners’ SRL and change over time from a more externally determined to a more self-determined learning environment (for a related discussion, see Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundPeng, J., Yuan, B., Sun, M., Jiang, M., & Wang, M. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141912907 · Cited by 28
“In view of the complexity of working with real-world problem-solving tasks or projects, researchers highlight the importance of providing learners with necessary support to facilitate or scaffold learning in such contexts [15,16,21].”
BackgroundÇelikler, D. (2010) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 28
How teachers’ attitudes affect their approaches to teaching international students
Arenas, E. (2009) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360903208096 · Cited by 28
“Conversely, there are also leading educators and discipline strategists who support the idea that the imparting or transmitting of knowledge through direct guidance may be superior to constructivist and phenomenologically‐driven teaching (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundSchwonke, R., Renkl, A., Salden, R., & Aleven, V. A. W. M. M. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.037 · Cited by 32
“In a recent discussion initiated by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) Kirschner et al. claimed ‘‘guided instruction” to be generally superior to less guided forms of instruction when learning is the primary goal of the instruction.”
BackgroundResultDudu, W. T. (2014) · South African Journal of Education · doi:10.15700/201412120937 · Cited by 28
“The questions were adapted from Kirschner et al. (2006).”
Promoting Gender Equality in Digital Literacy
Ertl, B., & Helling, K. (2011) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.45.4.f · Cited by 28
“Thus, learners perform best when having an adequate level of PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITLY IN DIGITAL LITERACY / 493 instruction and construction (see Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Reinman-Rothmeier & Mandl, 2001) or respectively appropriate levels of freedom and guidance (Hartmann et al., 2007).”
BackgroundData-Driven Belief Revision in Children and Adults
Masnick, A. M., Klahr, D., & Knowles, E. R. (2016) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2016.1168824 · Cited by 28
Teaching Cultural Heritage using Mobile Augmented Reality
Petrucco, C., & Agostini, D. (2016) · Iris (University of Trento) · doi:10.20368/1971-8829/1180 · Cited by 28
“117 teaching is the choice of adequate methodologies appropriate to the context in which they are to be used (Kirschner et al., 2006; Calvani, 2014).”
MethodCreativity, Talent and Excellence
Tan, A.-G., & Springer Malaysia Representative Office (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4021-93-7 · Cited by 31
Individual Appropriation of Learning Management Systems—Antecedents and Consequences
Janson, A., Söllner, M., & Leimeister, J. M. (2017) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00094 · Cited by 28
“By drawing on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), problems might occur when using an instructional design with minimal guidance for constructivist learning approaches.”
BackgroundMULTIDIMENSIONAL ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING—AN INTEGRATED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN APPROACH
Astleitner, H. (2018) · Journal of Instructional Research · doi:10.9743/jir.2018.1 · Cited by 30
Teacher Learning and Professional Development
Fincher, S. A., Kolikant, Y. B., & Falkner, K. E. K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.026 · Cited by 29
Peng, J., Wang, M., Sampson, D. G., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2019) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.4676 · Cited by 30
Pitkänen, K., Iwata, M., & Laru, J. (2019) · FabLearn Europe Conference · doi:10.1145/3335055.3335061 · Cited by 28
Cognitive Constructivist Foundations of Problem‐Based Learning
Schmidt, H. G., Rotgans, J. I., & Yew, E. H. J. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119173243.ch2 · Cited by 36
Good Animation: Pedagogy and Learning Theory in the Design and Use of Multimedia
Gregorius, R. M. (2010) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2010-1060.ch010 · Cited by 27
Intelligent science exhibits: Transforming hands-on exhibits into mixed-reality learning experiences
Yannier, N., Crowley, K., Do, Y., Hudson, S. E., & Koedinger, K. R. (2022) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2022.2032071 · Cited by 33
“Some educational effect studies (Alfieri et al., 2011; Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr and Nigam, 2004) also show that open-ended exploration activities often lead to learners demonstrating prolonged investigation, but also to difficulties with observing and interpreting observations.”
BackgroundComputational Thinking Education in K–12
Kong, S.-C., & Abelson, H. (2022) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/13375.001.0001 · Cited by 40
Tan, A., & Wong, H. M. (2011) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2011.565378 · Cited by 31
“In addition, they found that unguided instruction appeared ineffective and might have ‘negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganised knowledge’ (Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 84). Dean and Kuhn (2006) replicated Klahr and Nigam’s (2004) study comparing direct instruction and discover…”
InfluentialGuided and Team-Based Learning for Chemical Information Literacy
Loo, J. (2013) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2013.01.007 · Cited by 28
IMPROVING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONCEPTS OF WEIGHT AND MASS WITH A COMPUTER SIMULATION
Sarabando, C., Cravino, J., & Soares, A. D. A. (2016) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/16.15.109 · Cited by 27
“They recommended a strategy where both freedom and structure are offered, which is in line with research on the ineffectiveness of minimally guided instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFocusing on learning through constructive alignment with task-oriented portfolio assessment
Cain, A., Grundy, J., & Woodward, C. J. (2017) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2017.1299693 · Cited by 35
“Constructivism has received some strong criticisms when taken to an unproductive extreme (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundHatchel, T. J., Negriff, S. L., & Subrahmanyam, K. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.012 · Cited by 26
Habig, S., van Vorst, H., & Sumfleth, E. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-018-0077-8 · Cited by 27
“Auch die Nützlichkeit von problemorientiert gestalteten Lernumgebungen wird intensiv diskutiert (für einen Überblick siehe: Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialLewis, C. M., Shah, N., & Falkner, K. E. K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.017 · Cited by 36
Increasing the Interactivity in Software Engineering MOOCs - A Case Study
Krusche, S., & Seitz, A. (2019) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2019.915 · Cited by 22
“to facilitate learning and prevent misconceptions [11].”
Learning for Transdisciplinary Leadership: Why Skilled Scholars Coming Together Is Not Enough
Barrett, M. J., Alphonsus, K. B., Harmin, M., et al. (2019) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biz072 · Cited by 27
Project-based learning in robotics meets junior high school
Zadok, Y. (2020) · Journal of Engineering Design and Technology · doi:10.1108/jedt-01-2019-0023 · Cited by 29
Carbonneau, K. J., Wong, R. M., & Borysenko, N. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101846 · Cited by 26
Guided Discovery Problem-Posing: An Attempt to Improve Science Process Skills in Elementary School
Suryanti, S., Wıdodo, W., & Budijastuti, W. (2020) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2020.1336a · Cited by 27
Deep learning self-regulation strategies: Validation of a situational model and its questionnaire
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Darling‐Aduana, J. (2021) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104175 · Cited by 26
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Constructivism in language pedagogy
Szabó, F., & Csépes, I. (2022) · The Hungarian Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1556/063.2022.00136 · Cited by 47
“PBL is criticised by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), when they claim that research shows that there is no difference in problem-solving ability between groups of learners taught in this way and a control group.”
BackgroundWichmann, A., & Leutner, D. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.23.2.117 · Cited by 30
Promoting Student Engagement Through Evidence-Based Action Research With Teachers
Strambler, M. J., & McKown, C. (2013) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2013.757153 · Cited by 27
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) reported that unguided approaches such as experiential learning and inquiry learning have been consistently found to be less effective than guided ones with regard to student learning.”
BackgroundBaeten, M., Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Struyven, K. (2011) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2011.643113 · Cited by 28
“a lack of information and explanation provided by the teacher) in these learning environments (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ).”
BackgroundThe role of learning environments in thinking styles
Fan, J., & Zhang, L. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.817538 · Cited by 30
Latent learning in the work place: the placement experiences of student-coaches
Gomes, R. E., Jones, R. L., Batista, P., & Mesquita, I. (2016) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2016.1141287 · Cited by 29
Nelson, P. M., Demers, J. A., & Christ, T. J. (2014) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000049 · Cited by 27
The definition of the term “Inquiry-based instruction”
Dostál, J. (2015) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2015.826a · Cited by 27
“, 2012), inquiry-based teaching (see Brew, 2003; Kirschner et al., 2006) and inquiry-based education (see Atkins et al.”
BackgroundLearning efficacy and user acceptance of a game-based social skills learning environment
Tan, J. L., Goh, D. H., Ang, R. P.-H., & Huan, V. S. L. (2016) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2016.09.001 · Cited by 31
Digital Tools and Solutions for Inquiry-Based STEM Learning
Levin, I., & Tsybulsky, D. (2017) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2525-7 · Cited by 39
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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