The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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Rittle‐Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., & Loehr, A. M. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12124 · Cited by 55
Teaching Computational Thinking Using Agile Software Engineering Methods
Fronza, I., Ioini, N. E., & Corral, L. (2017) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3055258 · Cited by 63
“Teachers provide few explanations during these exercises, as learners have now sufficiently high prior knowledge (Kirschner et al. 2006), and solutions are checked at the end.”
BackgroundDesign considerations for combining augmented reality with intelligent tutors
Herbert, B. M., Ens, B. M., Weerasinghe, A., Billinghurst, M., & Wigley, G. (2018) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2018.09.017 · Cited by 55
Teaching and Learning Mathematics in Early Childhood Programs
Baroody, A. J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. H. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119148104.ch15 · Cited by 59
Wong, V., Smith, A. J., Hawkins, N. J., Kumar, R. K., Young, N., Kyaw, M., & Velan, G. M. (2015) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2015.07.002 · Cited by 55
Strategies for Incorporating Radiology into Early Medical School Curricula
Naeger, D. M., Webb, E. M., Zimmerman, L., & Elicker, B. M. (2013) · Journal of the American College of Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2013.07.013 · Cited by 54
“However, the effectiveness overall remains unclear, with multiple authors reporting little to no difference in student retention compared with more traditional learning formats [18,19].”
BackgroundOptimizing Lectures From a Cognitive Load Perspective
Jordan, J., Wagner, J., Manthey, D. E., Wolff, M., Santen, S. A., & Cico, S. J. (2019) · AEM Education and Training · doi:10.1002/aet2.10389 · Cited by 69
“Intrinsic load of a complex topic can be eased by breaking it into smaller manageable pieces.(24,25) Content should flow from simple to complex, starting with something basic and building.”
BackgroundChukwuedo, S. O., Mbagwu, F., & Ogbuanya, T. C. (2021) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101729 · Cited by 77
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_12 · Cited by 68
Self-citationDoes changing learning environments affect student motivation?
Schweder, S., & Raufelder, D. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101829 · Cited by 76
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Finkelstein, N. D., & Hanson, T. (2011) · Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness · Cited by 54
Different roads lead to Rome: the case of principle-based cognitive skills
Renkl, A. (2015) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2015.994255 · Cited by 58
“…instruction assume that open learning arrangements such as discovery methods impose too high demands to the learners in terms of the internal guidance required and of regulating the learning processes, at least as long as they have not yet gained some expertise (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAn exploration into inquiry-based learning by a multidisciplinary group of higher education faculty
Friedman, D. B., Crews, T. B., Caicedo, J. M., Besley, J. C., Weinberg, J., & Freeman, M. L. (2009) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-009-9279-9 · Cited by 53
“Discomfort with IBL by faculty and the possibility of being overwhelmed using this instructional modality are limitations of IBL ( Kirshner et al. 2006 ).”
Background21st Century Learning in Medicine: Traditional Teaching versus Team-based Learning
Kamei, R. K., Cook, S., Puthucheary, J., & Starmer, C. F. (2012) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/bf03341758 · Cited by 54
Zierer, K., & Seel, N. M. (2012) · SpringerPlus · doi:10.1186/2193-1801-1-15 · Cited by 57
“Sometimes a misunderstanding regarding constructivist approaches of learning and instruction occurs when it is assumed that constructivist and inquiry-based instruction must fail due to its minimal guidance of the learning processes (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMedical Student Perspectives of Active Learning: A Focus Group Study
Walling, A. D., Istas, K., Bonaminio, G. A., Paolo, A. M., Fontes, J. D., Davis, N., & Berardo, B. A. (2016) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2016.1247708 · Cited by 54
“Core of Information/Background/Baseline (122) Memory retention (38) Learning-style preference (29) Inefficient Use of Time (81) Frustration (36) On-the-job learning (28) PBL (72) Testing (36) Case-based learning (28) Peer Teaching/Students Teaching Students (61) Expectations unclear/vague instructions (35) Time constr…”
Scaffolding in problem-based learning for low-achieving learners
Haruehansawasin, S., & Kiattikomol, P. (2017) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2017.1287045 · Cited by 61
“Kirschner et al. (2006) asserted that a minimal amount of scaffolding instruction is less effective and less ef fi cient than instruction that strongly emphasizes scaffolding.”
BackgroundCukurova, M., Bennett, J., & Abrahams, I. (2017) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2017.1336709 · Cited by 55
“Previous research on guidance in instruction strategies The effects of variations in guidance on learning have been reviewed in a combination of laboratory and field-based studies by Mayer (2004), by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) and by Sweller, Kirschner, and Clark (2007).”
BackgroundMethodKruit, P., Oostdam, R., van den Berg, E., & Schuitema, J. A. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1428777 · Cited by 66
Research skills that men and women developed at university and then used in workplaces
Ain, C. T., Sabir, F., & Willison, J. (2018) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2018.1496412 · Cited by 77
van der Graaf, J., van de Sande, E., Gijsel, M. A. R., & Segers, E. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1594442 · Cited by 55
“Although unguided inquiry often is not effective (Kirschner et al., 2006), a comparison would allow for conclusions about the inquiry-based lesson series.”
BackgroundFactors influencing learner autonomy and autonomy support in a faculty of education
Basri, F. (2020) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1798921 · Cited by 80
Always Pay Attention to Which Model of Motor Learning You Are Using
Schöllhorn, W. I., Rizzi, N., Slapšinskaitė, A., & Leite, N. M. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020711 · Cited by 65
“Assessments of the results were mixed, with evaluations ranging from nearly inappropriate (in the sense of not suitable for teaching) [97,102], to conditionally appropriate [101], to unconditionally appropriate [103], without addressing the studies’ specific and diverse boundary conditions.”
BackgroundConsistent advantages of contrasted comparisons: Algebra learning under direct instruction
Ziegler, E., & Stern, E. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.006 · Cited by 59
Litmanen, T., Lonka, K., Inkinen, M., Lipponen, L., & Hakkarainen, K. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9203-4 · Cited by 58
Severiens, S. E., Meeuwisse, M., & Born, M. P. (2014) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-014-9820-3 · Cited by 54
Keith, N., Richter, T., & Naumann, J. (2009) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00417.x · Cited by 55
“The latter conclusion is particularly interesting because traditionally, guided training methods rather than active/exploratory approaches have been recommended for low ability learners (e.g., Ivancic & Hesketh, 1995/1996; Kirschner et al., 2006; Snow, 1986).”
BackgroundLizzio, A., & Wilson, K. L. (2011) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2011.637156 · Cited by 60
“Tasks that require students to find or construct essential information for themselves (unguided or minimal guidance) have been found to result in less direct learning and knowledge transfer compared to tasks where scaffolded guidance is provided (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ).”
BackgroundLai, P. K., Portolese, A., & Jacobson, M. J. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12492 · Cited by 53
Effects of instructional conditions and experience on the adoption of a learning tool
Gašević, D., Mirriahi, N., Dawson, S., & Joksimovíc, S. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.026 · Cited by 60
Learning to argue via apprenticeship
Papathomas, L. N., & Kuhn, D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.01.013 · Cited by 53
Stevenson, M. P., Hartmeyer, R., & Bentsen, P. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.02.002 · Cited by 68
The Case for Pragmatic Evidence-Based Higher Education: A Useful Way Forward?
Newton, P. M., Silva, A. S. D., & Berry, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.583157 · Cited by 68
“Similar arguments can be made for other methods such as discovery learning (Kirschner et al., 2006) and case-based learning (Thistlethwaite et al.”
Moeed, A. (2013) · The International Journal of Environmental and Science Education · doi:10.12973/ijese.2013.218a · Cited by 56
“Focusing on the distinction between practising a discipline and learning about it, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) posit that “the way an expert works in his or her domain (epistemology) is not equivalent to the way one learns in that area (pedagogy)‖ (p. 78).”
BackgroundComments on Greenhow, Robelia, and Hughes: Toward a Creative Social Web for Learners and Teachers
Zhang, J. (2009) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x09336674 · Cited by 52
“…environment, although still in its infancy, suggests the promise of engaging educators as co-innovators to understand new possibilities in pedagogy, assessment, and technology; to coevolve a professional knowledge base; and to develop classroom designs to actualize their new educational visions.”
BackgroundFacilitation and Teacher Behaviors
Arya, P., Christ, T., & Chiu, M. M. (2013) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487113511644 · Cited by 59
Improving Children’s Competence as Decision Makers
Xin, Z., Anderson, R. C., Morris, J. A., Miller, B., Nguyen‐Jahiel, K., Lin, T., Zhang, J., Jadallah, M., Scott, T., Sun, J., et al. (2015) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831215618663 · Cited by 53
Ciampolini, V., Milistetd, M., Rynne, S. B., Brasil, V. Z., & do Nascimento, J. V. (2019) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/1747954119833597 · Cited by 52
Solé-Llussà, A., Camaño, D. A., & Ibáñez, M. (2020) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2020.1786361 · Cited by 57
Hämäläinen, R., & Häkkinen, P. (2009) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.025 · Cited by 52
Best of both worlds: issues of structure and agency in computational creation, in and out of school
Resnick, M., & Brennan, K. A. (2013) · Cited by 51
Invention Versus Direct Instruction: For Some Content, It’s a Tie
Chase, C. C., & Klahr, D. (2017) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-017-9700-6 · Cited by 52
Sahota, M., Leung, B., Dowdell, S., & Velan, G. M. (2016) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-016-0831-x · Cited by 50
“The above findings align with previous studies, which demonstrated that students with greater amounts of knowledge and experience are more likely to benefit from the collaborative learning process [26, 27, 46 – 48].”
ResultProblem Solving and Algorithmic Development with Flowcharts
Smetsers-Weeda, R., & Smetsers, S. (2017) · doi:10.1145/3137065.3137080 · Cited by 51
Sun, J., Anderson, R. C., Lin, T., Morris, J. A., Miller, B., Ma, S., Nguyen‐Jahiel, K., & Scott, T. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102061 · Cited by 85
Vogel, F., Kollar, I., Fischer, F., Reiss, K. M., & Ufer, S. (2022) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-022-09363-z · Cited by 57
“On one end of the spectrum, there are arguments for highly structured scaffolds throughout the whole process of learning complex skills (Kirschner et al., 2006), while on the other, some researchers argue for as minimal structure as possible (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991).”
BackgroundOuyang, F., Dai, X., & Chen, S. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00361-z · Cited by 59
“From the theoretical and practical perspective, instructor scaffoldings are used to facilitate collaborative learning process and performance (Hmelo-Silver & DeSimone, 2013; Kirschner et al., 2006; Stahl, 2009), particularly for STEM education.”
BackgroundPlatz, L. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2022.102031 · Cited by 62
Westbrook, J., Durrani, N., Brown, R., Orr, D. M. R., Pryor, J. B., Boddy, J., & Salvi, F. (2013) · Cited by 50
Schrader, C., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2012) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v13i3.1166 · Cited by 53
“According to Kirschner et al. (2006), one of the potential threats not only of educational computer games but of all discovery-based, problem-based, or experiential learning environments is that they make heavy demands on learners’ working memory capacity by requiring unnecessary cognitive load…”
BackgroundWheeler, L. B., Maeng, J. L., & Whitworth, B. A. (2015) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c5rp00104h · Cited by 53
Adler, I., Zion, M., & Mevarech, Z. R. (2015) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21272 · Cited by 60
Lazonder, A. W., & Egberink, A. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9284-3 · Cited by 52
Key Areas of Effective Adolescent Literacy Programs
Marchand‐Martella, N. E., Martella, R. C., Modderman, S. L., Petersen, H. M., & Pan, S. (2012) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1353/etc.2013.0005 · Cited by 52
About, for, in or through entrepreneurship in engineering education
Mäkimurto-Koivumaa, S., & Belt, P. (2015) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2015.1095163 · Cited by 54
“However, it is crucial not to leave the student alone, on the contrary, the teacher should intensively support the learning process (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007; see also Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundLee, M. J. W., Nikolic, S., Vial, P. J., Ritz, C. H., Li, W., & Goldfinch, T. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2016.2546230 · Cited by 53
“These benefits notwithstanding, the idea of having completely open-ended problems or projects whose scope, deliverables, and other parameters are student-determined is not without its perils and pitfalls; in fact, such minimally guided or unguided instructional approaches have been heavily criticized by prominent educ…”
BackgroundProject-Based Learning: A Literature Review. Working Paper.
Condliffe, B. (2017) · MDRC · Cited by 53
Prevention–Permission–Promotion: A Review of Approaches to Errors in Learning
Wong, S. S. H., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1501693 · Cited by 53
“…that the exploration process is essential for learners to develop inquiry skills as active agents in constructing their knowledge (e.g., Bruner, 1961), other researchers have questioned the efficacy of unstructured exploration (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundConfirmatory Factor Analysis of Cognitive Load Ratings Supports a Two-Factor Model
Jiang, D., & Kalyuga, S. (2020) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.16.3.p216 · Cited by 54
The Bias-Variance Tradeoff: How Data Science Can Inform Educational Debates
Doroudi, S. (2020) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858420977208 · Cited by 59
“The debate around direct instruction versus discovery learning has surfaced in various ways throughout the history of education (Bruner, 1961; Ray, 1961; Winch, 1913), and is still a topic of controversy in education research (Kirschner et al., 2006; Munter et al., 2015; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundKarpov, Y. V. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107588318 · Cited by 51
Weller, M. (2011) · doi:10.5040/9781849666275.ch-008 · Cited by 97
Is problem‐based learning an ideal format for developing ethical decision skills?
Harasym, P. H., Tsai, T., & Munshi, F. M. (2013) · The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.kjms.2013.05.005 · Cited by 50
“[8] presented a convincing argument why extensive use of minimal guidance (e.”
BackgroundKranz, J., Baur, A., & Möller, A. (2022) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2022.2138151 · Cited by 96
“In that sense, the effectiveness of IBL has been questioned in the past (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialBjerknes, A., Wilhelmsen, T., & Foyn-Bruun, E. E. (2023) · Journal of Research in Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/02568543.2023.2192249 · Cited by 81
“If a child does not encounter the to-be-learned principle, discovery will not be useful to make sense for the learner (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004) because all teaching is based on preexisting knowledge (Question 11 in Aquinas, 1953), which also resembles the zone of proximal development…”
BackgroundImproving teacher candidate knowledge using content acquisition podcasts
Kennedy, M. J., Thomas, C. N., Aronin, S., Newton, J. R., & Lloyd, J. W. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.08.010 · Cited by 53
Cognitive efficiency: A conceptual and methodological comparison
Hoffman, B. H. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.09.001 · Cited by 56
Clark, R. E. (2009) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-009-9013-8 · Cited by 50
Self-citationConstructivism Deconstructed in Science Teacher Education
Garbett, D. (2011) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2011v36n6.5 · Cited by 50
Inquiry-based science teaching competence of primary school teachers: A Delphi study
Alake-Tuenter, E., Biemans, H. J. A., Tobi, H., & Mulder, M. (2013) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.04.013 · Cited by 50
“The Dutch experts may have been familiar with the work of Kirschner et al. (2006) in which evidence is provided for the assertion that teachers cannot assume pupils will have the same assumptions and thinking processes as a science professional.”
BackgroundGutierez, S. B. (2015) · Issues in educational research · Cited by 51
Interaction-based coding of scaffolding processes
Hermkes, R., Mach, H., & Mınnameıer, G. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.09.003 · Cited by 50
Wang, S., & Zhang, D. (2018) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2018.1490662 · Cited by 54
“…Dochy, & Janssens, 2008); (2) encouraging students to actively participate in course teaching to help them to construct knowledge for themselves (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) and (3) facilitating and coaching students to address questions or problems in their learning process (Renate &…”
BackgroundMethods in Teaching Computer Networks
Prvan, M., & Ožegović, J. (2020) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3394963 · Cited by 50
Something old, something new from cognitive load theory
Ayres, P. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106503 · Cited by 55
Consideration of climate change effects in architectural education
Pesic, N. (2018) · Jornadas sobre Innovación Docente en Arquitectura (JIDA) · doi:10.5821/jida.2018.5502 · Cited by 49
Apanasionok, M. M., Hastings, R. P., Grindle, C. F., Watkins, R. C., & Paris, A. (2019) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21531 · Cited by 56
Haagen‐Schützenhöfer, C., & Hopf, M. (2020) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.16.020152 · Cited by 60
“…learning situations based on “ learning by doing ” or “ trial and error ” approaches are avoided as they may endanger students ’ learning success [75] by inadvertently supporting the status of initial misconceptions, instead of introducing intended conceptions and increasing their status as…”
Formative Interfaces for Scaffolding Self-Regulated Learning in PLEs
Türker, M. A., & Zingel, S. (2008) · E-learning papers · Cited by 49
Cardiovascular physiology predicts learning effects in a serious game activity
Cowley, B. U., Ravaja, N., & Heikura, T. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.014 · Cited by 50
Comparing Four Instructional Techniques for Promoting Robust Knowledge
Richey, J. E., & Nokes‐Malach, T. J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9268-0 · Cited by 57
“…some practice regimens cannot support learning until learners have acquired sufficient knowledge to guide themselves, based on limitations of working memory, the role of working memory in creating long-term knowledge, and research comparing guided and unguided instruction (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundBerti, A. E., Toneatti, L., & Rosati, V. (2010) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2010.508027 · Cited by 48
“This is suggested not only by views underlining the impact of explicit instruction on conceptual change (eg, Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Vosniadou, 2007 ) but also by the cross-cultural differences in children's accounts of the origin of species highlighted by the few studies on this topic.”
BackgroundEight Issues for Learning Scientists About Education and the Economy
Roschelle, J., Bakia, M., Toyama, Y., & Patton, C. M. (2010) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.528318 · Cited by 50
“The lack of clear definition has led to strong critiques ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundHaug, B. S., & Ødegaard, M. (2014) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-014-9402-5 · Cited by 67
Considering the history of digital technologies in education
Howard, S. K., & Mozejko, A. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.017 · Cited by 54
Educational Game and Intelligent Tutoring System
Long, Y., & Aleven, V. A. W. M. M. (2017) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3057889 · Cited by 55
Ewing, D. R., & Ewing, R. L. (2017) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/0273475317724844 · Cited by 49
“This may also explain the findings of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundResultWang, M., Yuan, B., Kirschner, P. A., Kushniruk, A. W., & Peng, J. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.025 · Cited by 49
Self-citationHackers, Computers, and Cooperation
Ames, M. G. (2018) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3274287 · Cited by 54
Experimentation in biology lessons: guided discovery through incremental scaffolds
Großmann, N., & Wilde, M. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1579392 · Cited by 58
“Consequently, to avoid excessive demands, complex tasks require some sort of structure (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMétodos pedagógicos emergentes para un nuevo siglo ¿Qué hay realmente de innovación?
Montanero, M. (2019) · Teoría de la Educación Revista Interuniversitaria · doi:10.14201/teri.19758 · Cited by 49
“…impone una alta demanda a la memoria de trabajo y un evidente riesgo de fracaso a la hora de extraer y articular la información esencial (Kirschner et al., 2006; Rouet y Potocki, 2018; Wijnia, Loyens, van Gog y Schmidt, 2014); de modo que, sin una guía muy estrecha del profesorado, los…”
BackgroundInfluentialPitchford, N. J., Chigeda, A., & Hubber, P. J. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12864 · Cited by 62
Outhwaite, L. A., Gulliford, A., & Pitchford, N. J. (2019) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2019.1657081 · Cited by 71
“Furthermore, this evidence echoes direct instructional theory, which emphasizes the structural conditions for learning with repeated rehearsal and reduced distraction in the environment (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundBenefits and Pitfalls of Using Capture the Flag Games in University Courses
Vykopal, J., Švábenský, V., & Chang, E. (2020) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3328778.3366893 · Cited by 49
“Although the unguided progress inherent for competitions suits advanced learners and can lead to creative solutions [10], it is highly ineffective for beginners [12].”
BackgroundBuntine, M. A., Read, J. R., Barrie, S. C., Bucat, R. B., Crisp, G. T., George, A. V., Jamie, I. M., & Kable, S. H. (2007) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/b6rp90033j · Cited by 51
“Equally, pure discovery approaches can be ineffective (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006), in part because they can lack sufficient structure necessary to support student autonomy (Skinner and Belmont, 1993), and in part because they can foster behavioural rather than cognitive engagement (Byers,…”
BackgroundMeguerdichian, M. J., Walker, K., & Bajaj, K. (2016) · BMJ Simulation & Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1136/bmjstel-2015-000098 · Cited by 57
Engagement in College and University Applied Learning Experiences and Students’ Academic Motivation
Trolian, T. L., & Jach, E. A. (2020) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/1053825920925100 · Cited by 63
“In a review of empirical studies, researchers also concluded that strong instructional guidance (as opposed to minimally guided approaches to instruction) is most effective for student learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSweller, J., Zhang, L., Ashman, G., Cobern, W. W., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100584 · Cited by 50
Self-citationA review of simulation platforms in surgery of the temporal bone
Bhutta, M. F. (2015) · Clinical Otolaryngology · doi:10.1111/coa.12560 · Cited by 48
Practice enables successful learning under minimal guidance.
Brunstein, A., Betts, S., & Anderson, J. R. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016656 · Cited by 48
“…guided instruction continues to have its advocates (e.g., Fuson et al., 1997; Hiebert et al., 1996; Kamii & Dominick, 1998; von Glasersfeld, 1995), evidence and argument have been accumulating against it (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Rittle-Johnson, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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