The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 6,869
In Academe, What Is Learned, and How Is It Learned?
Sweller, J. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721415569570 · Cited by 85
“From an instructional perspective, the empirical evidence is overwhelming that direct, explicit instruction is the most effective form of instruction when compared to various forms of minimal guidance associated with discovery or problem-based learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThere is an Evidence Crisis in Science Educational Policy
Lin, Z., Kirschner, P. A., Cobern, W. W., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09646-1 · Cited by 88
“, 2011), arguing that starting with explorations overloads students’ working memory (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, 2009; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Emergence of Scientific Reasoning
Bradley, J. F., Croker, S. J., M, A. P. M. S., & Zimmerm, C. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/53885 · Cited by 90
Productive failure in learning from generation and invention activities
Kapur, M., & Rummel, N. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9235-4 · Cited by 87
Effects of feedback on collaborative writing in an online learning environment
Guasch, T., Espasa, A., Valdivia, I. M. Á., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2013.835772 · Cited by 89
“However, research shows that students need support from both instructors and peers to achieve the writing competences required in higher education (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Lonka, 2003; Scheuer, Loll, Pinkwart, & McLaren, 2010; Van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRoll, I., Butler, D., Yee, N., Welsh, A., Perez, S., Briseno, A., Perkins, K., & Bonn, D. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9437-x · Cited by 86
Learning English through actions: a study of mobile-assisted language learning
Liu, P., & Chen, C.-J. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.959976 · Cited by 86
“Numerous researchers have claimed that learning occurs when individuals are encouraged to engage in productive learning activity (de Jong, 2005; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Lillard, 2005; Mayer, 2003, 2004).”
BackgroundGlogger‐Frey, I., Gaus, K., & Renkl, A. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.11.002 · Cited by 88
Clinton, G., & Rieber, L. P. (2010) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9165-2 · Cited by 90
“A great mistake that is often made when interpreting and analyzing applications of constructivism to education is that it is synonymous with discovery learning and that instruction is the antithesis of such a philosophy (see Kirschner et al. 2006 and Mayer 2004, for examples of this misconception).”
BackgroundFormative Assessment Design for PDA Integrated Ecology Observation
Hung, P., Lin, Y., & Hwang, G. (2010) · Cited by 86
Dynamic scaffolding of socially regulated learning in a computer-based learning environment
Molenaar, I., Roda, C., van Boxtel, C., & Sleegers, P. J. C. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.006 · Cited by 86
The crucial role of motivation and emotion in classroom learning
Boekaerts, M. (2010) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/9789264086487-6-en · Cited by 99
Computational What? Relating Computational Thinking to Teaching
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“Guided discovery methods are known to be superior to pure discovery methods (for a review see: Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
MethodReinventing the Role of Information and Communications Technologies in Education
Dede, C. (2007) · Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1744-7984.2007.00113.x · Cited by 91
Student perspectives on self-directed learning
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Comparative Pedagogical Models of Problem‐Based Learning
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Learning Networks, Networked Learning
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Beyond The Flipped Classroom: Redesigning A Research Methods Course For e3 Instruction
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Practice Fridays: Using Simulation to Develop Holistic Competence
Kourgiantakis, T., Bogo, M., & Sewell, K. M. (2019) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2018.1548989 · Cited by 82
System thinking and feeding relations: learning with a live ecosystem model
Eilam, B. (2011) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9175-4 · Cited by 83
“This design corresponds with Kirschner et al. (2006, p. 75) call for such instruction to provide ‘‘information that fully explains the concepts and procedures that students are required to learn as well as learning strategy support that is compatible with human cognitive architecture.’’”
MethodWorked example effects in individual and group work settings
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443411003659960 · Cited by 103
“This cognitive architecture can be used to suggest that when dealing with the biologically secondary information found in mathematics courses, instruction should be detailed and explicit (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAutomatic summary assessment for intelligent tutoring systems
He, Y., Hui, S. C., & Quan, T. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.008 · Cited by 82
“Modern theories of learning put an emphasis on the critical role of practice and they also highlight the importance of feedback because inherent risks exist in unguided environments (Clark, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundOtting, H., Zwaal, W., Tempelaar, D. T., & Gijselaers, W. (2010) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075070903383203 · Cited by 81
“2005 ; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ; Moust, van Berkel, and Schmidt 2005 ; Norman and Schmidt 2000 ).”
Harvey, S., Pill, S., & Almond, L. (2018) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2017.1359526 · Cited by 83
“…implicitly and draw on research evidence which recognizes explicit and/or strongly guided discovery learning as more effective than weakly guided or ‘implicit’ learning to develop understanding, a central tenet of the TGfU model (Alfieri et al. 2011; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundPodcasts in Support of Experiential Field Learning
Jarvis, C., & Dickie, J. (2010) · Journal of Geography in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03098260903093653 · Cited by 82
“While meritorious overall in regard to creating a curriculum that is generally motivational for students, it has been argued (Kirschner et al., 2006) that some less closely supervised enquiry-based learning can on occasion leave students exposed and frustrated, and perhaps less competent than when they began.”
BackgroundEnhancing self-directed learning through a content quiz group learning assignment
Warburton, N. M., & Volet, S. (2012) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1469787412467126 · Cited by 81
“Similarly, Kirschner et al. (2006) claimed that ‘a strong emphasis on guidance of the students’ learning process’ (p. 75) is more effective than minimally guided instruction.”
BackgroundDwyer, C. P., Hogan, M., Harney, O., & Kavanagh, C. (2016) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9460-7 · Cited by 93
Hägg, G., & Kurczewska, A. (2018) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1111/jsbm.12496 · Cited by 92
“…problem-solving situations, whereas an expert makes connections with previous experiences and sees potential solutions in an automated manner (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006). through accumulation of knowledge developed from previous experiences, the expert becomes better at matching…”
BackgroundExperiential Learning and the Moral Duty of Business Schools
Dean, K. L., Wright, S., & Forray, J. M. (2019) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2018.0335 · Cited by 90
Goeze, A., Zottmann, J., Vogel, F., Fischer, F., & Schrader, J. (2014) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9304-3 · Cited by 96
Engeln, K., Euler, M., & Maaß, K. (2013) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-013-0507-5 · Cited by 95
Learning problem-solving through making games at the game design and learning summer program
Akcaoğlu, M. (2014) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-014-9347-4 · Cited by 99
“The reason for this was the effectiveness of guided-discovery methods over pure discovery (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
MethodSchmidt, H. G., Cohen‐Schotanus, J., van der Molen, H. T., Splinter, T. A. W., Bulte, J. A., Holdrinet, R. S. G., & van Rossum, H. J. M. (2009) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-009-9300-3 · Cited by 81
“You need direct instruction by experts who help you decide what to study and how to study it ( Kirschner et al. 2006 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe role of teacher assistance on the effects of a macro-script in collaborative writing tasks
Onrubia, J., & Engel, A. (2011) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-011-9125-9 · Cited by 80
“…with certain recent proposals in the field of CSCL which stress the importance of the teacher as a guide in the collaborative processes of student groups (Anderson et al. 2001; De Laat et al. 2007; Dillenbourg and Hong 2008; Kirschner et al. 2006; Lockhorst2004 ; Veldhuis-Diermanse 2002).”
BackgroundGuidance in inquiry-based instruction – an attempt to disentangle a manifold construct
Vorholzer, A., & von Aufschnaiter, C. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1616124 · Cited by 80
“Having to address demands in multiple cognitive domains at the same time increases the cognitive load of a task; a high cognitive load is assumed to have a negative impact on students’ learning, in particular for inexperienced learners with low prior knowledge (e.g. Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Kirschner…”
BackgroundKang, J. (2020) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-020-09946-6 · Cited by 124
“This result is in line with the argument of Kirschner et al. (2006) emphasizing that a minimal guidance during IBL might cause high cognitive load and stress that may be detrimental to learning.”
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A systematic literature review of teacher scaffolding in game-based learning in primary education
Sun, L., Kangas, M., Ruokamo, H., & Siklander, P. (2023) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100546 · Cited by 120
“…due to the implementation of inappropriate scaffolding approaches (Barzilai & Blau, 2014; Chen et al., 2013; Wang, 2020), such as noncontingent interaction (Hermkes et al., 2018) and too much “ hands on ” or “ hands off ” support (Hermkes et al., 2018; Kirschner et al., 2006; Reusser, 2001).”
BackgroundLeuchter, M., Saalbach, H., & Hardy, I. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.878482 · Cited by 80
“structivist learning environments has revived a discussion about the elements of instructional scaffolding necessary to induce conceptual change (Furtak et al., 2012; Kirschner et al., 2006; Treagust, 2008).”
BackgroundGilmore, J. A., Vieyra, M. L., Timmerman, B. E., Feldon, D. F., & Maher, M. (2015) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1353/jhe.2015.0031 · Cited by 149
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“level problem-solving strategy instruction as the more able students with higher prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Rittle-Johnson, Star, & Durkin, 2009).”
BackgroundBridging Learning Theories and Technology-Enhanced Environments: A Critical Appraisal of Its History
Lowyck, J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_1 · Cited by 98
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Problem based learning (PBL): A conundrum
Wells, S., Warelow, P. J., & Jackson, K. (2009) · Contemporary Nurse · doi:10.5172/conu.2009.33.2.191 · Cited by 78
“Minimal guidance is offered across this approach and clearly some students fi nd it quite appealing but Kirschner et al. (2006) advises caution suggesting that empirical studies over the past half century indicate that minimally guided methods are less effective and less effi cient than…”
BackgroundInfluentialStudent‐centred pedagogy in Turkey: conceptualisations, interpretations and practices
Altinyelken, H. K. (2011) · Journal of Education Policy · doi:10.1080/02680939.2010.504886 · Cited by 79
“Indeed, constructivist methods have come under increasing criticisms and several empirical studies have demonstrated that direct teaching and a guided approach to learning is more effective (Gauthier and Dembele 2004 ; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ).”
BackgroundCognitive Task Analysis–Based Training
Tofel‐Grehl, C., & Feldon, D. F. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343412474821 · Cited by 86
Pijeira‐Díaz, H. J., Drachsler, H., Järvelä, S., & Kirschner, P. A. (2016) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2883851.2883897 · Cited by 81
“Reaching high-level cognitive processing is a demanding task [29], and cognitive challenges tend to cause tension and increase the potential for both socio-emotional conflicts and poor collaborative learning experiences [36, 2].”
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Vincent‐Ruz, P., & Schunn, C. D. (2017) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21387 · Cited by 80
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Current Issues and Open Questions in Cognitive Load Research
Brünken, R., Plass, J. L., & Moreno, R. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.014 · Cited by 84
Scaffolding norms of argumentation-based inquiry in a primary mathematics classroom
Makar, K., Bakker, A., & Ben‐Zvi, D. (2015) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-015-0732-1 · Cited by 85
A systematic review of serious games in asthma education
Drummond, D., Monnier, D., Tesnière, A., & Hadchouel, A. (2016) · Pediatric Allergy and Immunology · doi:10.1111/pai.12690 · Cited by 77
“…than traditional didactic lectures for both knowledge acquisition and behavioral changes (10 – 12); they provide feed-back, essential for learning (13); they promote deliberate practice by offering repetition of each game level until mastery is reached (14); and they encourage perseverance during…”
BackgroundShe, H., Lin, H., & Huang, L.-Y. (2019) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21553 · Cited by 98
Johnston, J. M., Schooling, C. M., & Leung, G. M. (2009) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-9-63 · Cited by 71
Blayney, P., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9105-x · Cited by 76
“Novice learners usually benefit from well guided instructional materials ( Kirschner et al. 2006 ) that introduce new elements of information gradually by small increments at a low pace, especially when learning structurally complex materials.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDesigning for fake news literacy training: A problem-based undergraduate online-course
Scheibenzuber, C., Hofer, S. I., & Nistor, N. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106796 · Cited by 98
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Local education authorities and student learning: the effects of policies and practices
Lee, M., Louis, K. S., & Anderson, S. E. (2012) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243453.2011.652125 · Cited by 91
“More recently, there is accumulating evidence that teacher's efforts to control the timing and pacing of work in classrooms is important for student learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Kyriakides, 2008 ; Taylor, Pearson, Clark, & Walpole, 2000 ).”
BackgroundImpact of Additional Guidance in Science Education on Primary Students’ Conceptual Understanding
Decristan, J., Hondrich, A. L., Büttner, G., Hertel, S., Klieme, E., Kunter, M., Lühken, A., Adl-Amini, K., Djakovic, S.-K., Mannel, S., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.899957 · Cited by 94
“Particularly the guidance dimension has received continuous interest, accompanied by an intense debate on the role of guidance for student learning (e.g., Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
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“…dem Schluss, dass offener, entdeckender Unterricht mit geringer Steuerung durch die Lehrkraft weniger effektiv ist als lehrergelenkter Unterricht (Mayer 2004; Alfieri et al. 2011) und sogar negative Auswirkungen auf den Lernprozess von Schülerinnen und Schülern haben kann (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLiou, P. (2020) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21643 · Cited by 92
Intra-operative decision making: More than meets the eye
Pugh, C. M., Santacaterina, S., DaRosa, D. A., & Clark, R. E. (2010) · Journal of Biomedical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2010.01.001 · Cited by 76
“However, simulators that focus on decision making may provide important details regarding knowledge-based intraoperative decisions that can not be captured during CTA interviews [28,33,46,51].”
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“Pedagogy and learning design have played a key role in computerassisted learning in the last two decades [6, 19, 25], but research has not extensively linked learning design to learning behavior and learner performance [23, 26].”
BackgroundThe search for deep learning: a curriculum coherence model
McPhail, G. J. (2020) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2020.1748231 · Cited by 115
“Kirschner et al. (2006), Kirschner & Van Merrienboer (2013), and Kirschner and Van Merrienboer (2013), argue that deep learning is not possible without a large quantity of knowledge stored in the long-term memory.”
BackgroundFeng, M., Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11774303_4 · Cited by 77
Machine learning based feedback on textual student answers in large courses
Bernius, J. P., Krusche, S., & Bruegge, B. (2022) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100081 · Cited by 75
Problem-Based Learning for Promoting Student Learning in High School Geography
Yeung, S. P. (2010) · Journal of Geography · doi:10.1080/00221341.2010.501112 · Cited by 79
“In the literature there were also debates about the effectiveness of PBL because of its relative neglect of human cognitive structure in the learning process ( Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ).”
BackgroundSahlgren, G. H. (2017) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.10.005 · Cited by 80
A Systematic Review of Problem Based Learning in Education*
Zakaria, M. I., Maat, S. M., & Khalid, F. B. (2019) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2019.1012194 · Cited by 75
Serious Games Get Smart: Intelligent Game‐Based Learning Environments
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“…with findings from the education literature, which suggest that students who receive problem-solving guidance (coaching, hints) during inquiry-based learning achieve greater learning outcomes than students who receive minimal or no guidance (Kirschner , Sweller, and Clark 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundE-Learning: Is There Anything Special about the "E"?
Cook, D. A., & McDonald, F. S. (2008) · Perspectives in biology and medicine · doi:10.1353/pbm.2008.0007 · Cited by 82
The Teaching Green School Building: a framework for linking architecture and environmental education
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Using Constructivist Teaching Strategies to Enhance Academic Outcomes of Students with Special Needs
Akpan, J. P., & Beard, L. A. (2016) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2016.040211 · Cited by 75
“Also, those students who taught using constructivist methods were able to answer standard procedural questions conceptual questions and critical questions outperform those who were taught using direct instruction (Kain,2003[33]; Boaler, 2001[34]; Kirschner, 2014[29]; Rowman & Littlefeld, 2015[40].”
BackgroundAgents for games and simulations
Dignum, F. P. M. (2011) · Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems · doi:10.1007/s10458-011-9169-2 · Cited by 74
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Progression of student self-assessed learning outcomes in systemic PBL
Kolmos, A., Holgaard, J. E., & Clausen, N. R. (2020) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2020.1789070 · Cited by 74
“Despite criticism formulated by cognitive psychologists on the missing cognitive scaffolding in experiential pedagogy, more and more variations of PBL seem to be increasingly used with positive effects (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundGuided inquiry-based learning in secondary-school chemistry classes: a case study
Orosz, G., Németh, V., Kovács, L., et al. (2022) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d2rp00110a · Cited by 74
How Successful Leadership Influences Student Learning: The Second Installment of a Longer Story
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“Research reviews have begun to reemphasize the value of teacher-directed instruction, however ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006, p. 83 ).”
BackgroundImproving Temporal Bone Dissection Using Self‐Directed Virtual Reality Simulation
Zhao, Y. C., Kennedy, G. E., Yukawa, K., et al. (2010) · Otolaryngology · doi:10.1177/0194599810391624 · Cited by 74
“It has been demonstrated that guided discovery or inquiry-based learning methods lead to better performance and retention and a deeper understanding of concepts.(28) However, although discovery-based learning is beneficial, guidance is still required.”
BackgroundChallenges and Support When Teaching Science Through an Integrated Inquiry and Literacy Approach
Ødegaard, M., Haug, B. S., Mork, S. M., & Sørvik, G. O. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.942719 · Cited by 87
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Teaching for Creativity in an Era of Content Standards and Accountability
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“Similarly, most teachers do not use the pure discovery, unguided, or minimally guided instructional approaches that Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have shown to be significantly “less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the…”
BackgroundWhen Chinese learners meet constructivist pedagogy online
Chen, R. T.-H., & Bennett, S. (2012) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-012-9520-9 · Cited by 73
“Indeed, studies have shown that teachers implementing constructivist pedagogy in face-to-face classroom settings tend to also offer students considerable guidance when they see students are struggling (see Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundReynolds, R. B., & Harel, I. (2011) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9191-8 · Cited by 73
“Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) pose a response to Kirschner et al. (2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffective peer interaction in a problem‐centered instructional strategy
Merrill, M., & Gilbert, C. G. (2008) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587910802154996 · Cited by 73
“Not only do problems help prevent peer-telling, but also they provide needed structure and guidance for effective peer interaction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAugmented reality m-learning to enhance nursing skills acquisition in the clinical skills laboratory
Garrett, B., Jackson, C., & Wilson, B. (2015) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/itse-05-2015-0013 · Cited by 71
“Nevertheless, the constructivist roots of m-learning have been criticized (Kirschner et al., 2006), although arguably together with humanism remain a highly prevalent conceptual model within modern nursing education.”
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“WMmay process up to 9 units at the same time, being easily overloaded when it is dealing with a novel task that requires a large number of information units [33, 34].”
BackgroundCerezo, L., Caras, A., & Leow, R. P. (2016) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263116000139 · Cited by 85
Evaluating Claims to Avoid Pseudoscientific and Unproven Practices in Special Education
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“However, even though this approach is theoretically sound, many researchers have found themselves struggling to implement discovery-learning activities in real-world classrooms [19].”
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“Recognising the need for considerable guidance to ensure learning in such open-ended activities (Kirscher et al., 2006; Kynigos, 1992; Mayer, 2004) and the potential for engagement and learning (Noss and Hoyles, 1996; Grawemeyer et al., 2017; Rummel et al., 2016), efforts have focused on…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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