The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,301–1,400 of 6,869
Fulmer, G. W., Ma, H., & Liang, L. L. (2019) · Asia-Pacific Science Education · doi:10.1186/s41029-019-0037-8 · Cited by 33
“However, there has been debate in the field as some scholars argued for the superiority of direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundTziner, A. E., Fein, E. C., Kim, S., Vasiliu, C., & Shkoler, O. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00851 · Cited by 44
Hallinger, P. (2020) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3656 · Cited by 37
Novaes, C. D. (2020) · Cited by 32
Chen, C., Chan, W.-P., Huang, S.-K., & Liao, C.-W. (2022) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2022.2032629 · Cited by 45
“Open inquiries in museums can place a heavy cognitive load on learners (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundStimulating Scientific Reasoning with Drawing-Based Modeling
Heijnes, D., van Joolingen, W., & Leenaars, F. A. J. (2017) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-017-9707-z · Cited by 32
Green, G. P., Bean, J. C., & Peterson, D. J. (2013) · The Journal of Economic Education · doi:10.1080/00220485.2013.770338 · Cited by 32
“As brain scientists would put it, the neural network associated with “area under the curve” has become more richly elaborated, dense, and interconnected with other neural networks (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundIntegrating web-delivered problem-based learning scenarios to the curriculum
Gossman, P., Stewart, T. M., Jaspers, M. V., & Chapman, B. (2007) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1469787407077986 · Cited by 31
The design of technology-rich learning environments as metacognitive tools in history education
Poitras, E., Lajoie, S. P., & Hong, Y.-J. (2011) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9194-1 · Cited by 36
“Furthermore, scaffolding mechanisms could be embedded as part of the TRE in order to enhance learning through historical inquiry (for an excellent debate on the question of scaffolding and inquiry-based learning, see Kirschner et al. 2006 and Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007).”
BackgroundLessons from a course on serious games research and prototyping
Chaffin, A., & Barnes, T. M. (2010) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/1822348.1822353 · Cited by 32
“Game ideas can fail for any number of reasons, but the most common ones we’ve seen are: 1) the topic is too easy or too hard, 2) the topic is too broad or too narrow to cover in a 30-60 minute game, 3) the game cannot be rapidly prototyped easily, 4) the game requires extensive art, sound, or animation, and 5) the gam…”
BackgroundInstructional Guidance in Reciprocal Peer Tutoring with Task Cards
Iserbyt, P., Elen, J., & Behets, D. (2010) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.29.1.38 · Cited by 32
“In general, the enhancement of skill retention in the most guided condition supports previous research where settings with no or minimal guidance were found to be inferior to guided methods of instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialStudents' Perceptions of Their Learning Experiences in an Authentic Instructional Design Context
Dabbagh, N. H., & Blijd, C. W. (2010) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1092 · Cited by 32
Advice on Tool Use in Open Learning Environments
Clarebout, G., & Elen, J. (2008) · Lirias · Cited by 33
Education beyond competencies: a participative approach to professional development
Gleeson, C. R. (2010) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03601.x · Cited by 32
Lejonberg, E., & Tiplic, D. (2016) · Mentoring & Tutoring Partnership in Learning · doi:10.1080/13611267.2016.1252110 · Cited by 32
“Newly qualified teachers are often at a stage where the challenge of acting, monitoring, evaluating, and learning from their own performance in the classroom is overwhelming (Caspersen & Raaen, 2014; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe unspoken voice and speech debate [or] the sacred cow in the conservatory
Sansom, R. (2016) · Voice and Speech Review · doi:10.1080/23268263.2016.1318814 · Cited by 32
“Teachers and students who prefer constructivism relish exploration; they value personal discovery over precise learning goals, and they often enjoy metaphoric language rather than technical language when learning new concepts (Craig 1956; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundBuckley, J., Seery, N., Canty, D., & Gumaelius, L. (2018) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2018.05.007 · Cited by 32
“McCormick (1997) suggests that explicit technological knowledge will be relative to specific tasks and circumstances and Kimbell (2011) argues that technological knowledge is inherently different to scientific knowledge whereby scientific knowledge is concerned with literal truths with…”
Blikstein, P. (2014) · Gaming media and social effects · doi:10.1007/978-981-4560-96-2_15 · Cited by 32
“The literature suggests that multiple representations can help students understand underlying scientific concepts, but such representations can also be overwhelming to new learners, who lack the knowledge that would permit them to focus on the appropriate elements of the process (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAdúriz–Bravo, A. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7654-8_45 · Cited by 32
Bruce, B. C., & Bloch, N. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_544 · Cited by 32
Banerjee, A. C. (2010) · CSU ePress (Columbus State University) · Cited by 31
Teoría instruccional y tecnología para el nuevo paradigma de la educación
Reigeluth, C. M. (2016) · Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) · doi:10.6018/red/50/1a · Cited by 142
Active learning in robotics based on simulation tools
Nicolás, G. L., Romeo, A., & Guerrero, J. J. (2011) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.20576 · Cited by 31
“In general, it should be noted that traditional lecture meth-ods are less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process [21].”
BackgroundVideo and HTML: Testing Online Tutorial Formats with Biology Students
Craig, C. L., & Friehs, C. G. (2013) · Journal of Web Librarianship · doi:10.1080/19322909.2013.815112 · Cited by 31
“Instead, new learners gain more from worked examples, which provide a possible step-by-step solution to a given problem (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundTobias, S. (2010) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520903433612 · Cited by 41
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) initiated a round of sharp criticism of constructivist approaches to instruction, as did a number of others who advocated more explicit instructional methods (see Tobias & Duffy, 2009, for detailed position papers by both critics and supporters of constructivist…”
BackgroundLyons, L., Tissenbaum, M., Berland, M., Eydt, R., Wielgus, L., & Mechtley, A. (2015) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/2771839.2771845 · Cited by 31
“As museums have put “Maker Spaces” on their floors, they have realized that completely open workspaces are not as effective as carefully bounded (and often facilitated) activities, a finding consistent with many critiques of open-ended inquiry learning [19].”
ResultPatterson, D. A. (2010) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2010.10.001 · Cited by 31
Wikis for Building Content Knowledge in the Foreign Language Classroom
Pellet, S. (2012) · CALICO Journal · doi:10.11139/cj.29.2.224-248 · Cited by 31
What's the best way to teach computer science to beginners?
Guzdial, M. (2015) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/2714488 · Cited by 31
Rodríguez-Arteche, I., & Aznar, M. M. M. (2016) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b01037 · Cited by 34
Krusche, S., Seitz, A., Börstler, J., et al. (2017) · doi:10.1145/3013499.3013513 · Cited by 31
“This might lead to unnecessary knowledge gaps for the learners, especially if the interaction between educators and learners is low.”
Is having more prerequisite knowledge better for learning from productive failure?
Toh, P. L. L., & Kapur, M. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9402-0 · Cited by 31
“Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) would suggest a greater cognitive load may well interfere with the schema acquisition of the targeted concepts (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller 1988).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZhu, P. (2018) · The Journal for Specialists in Group Work · doi:10.1080/01933922.2018.1451581 · Cited by 31
Marei, H. F., Donkers, J. H. H. L. M., Al-Eraky, M. M., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2018) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2018.1472372 · Cited by 34
“Moreover, the sequence of complex VPs with other instructional methods that do not respect the level of prior knowledge of the learners could result in poor instructions, which is another potential source of cognitive load known as extraneous cognitive load (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundProject-based experience through real manufacturing activities in mechanical engineering
Abellán-Nebot, J. V. (2018) · International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education · doi:10.1177/0306419018787302 · Cited by 33
“For this purpose, LFs have been implemented at colleges which offer students in traditional engineering disciplines an alternative path to a degree that directly prepares them for careers in manufacturing, design and product realization.(40) However, the implementation of LFs in small universities without the support…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDriska, A. P. (2018) · International Sport Coaching Journal · doi:10.1123/iscj.2017-0096 · Cited by 31
Implicit Analogies in Learning: Supporting Transfer by Warming Up
Sidney, P. G., & Thompson, C. A. (2019) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721419870801 · Cited by 30
Simple spans underestimate verbal working memory capacity.
Barrouillet, P., Gorin, S., & Camos, V. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000957 · Cited by 36
Smit, N., van Dijk, M., de Bot, K., et al. (2021) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2021-0023 · Cited by 31
“Insights from cognitive psychology show that a cognitive contribution from the learners is needed for them to benefit from teacher support (Kirschner et al. 2006; Long and Doughty 2009).”
BackgroundEducational Robotics Curricula: Current Trends and Shortcomings
Sapounidis, T., & Alimisis, D. (2021) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77022-8_12 · Cited by 30
Pietarinen, T., Palonen, T., & Vauras, M. (2021) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-021-09347-5 · Cited by 38
Studying the generalisability of cognitive load measured with EEG
Cabañero, L., Hervás, R., Gónzalez, I., & Villarreal, V. (2021) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2021.103032 · Cited by 35
Tractenberg, R. E. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11080441 · Cited by 40
“(2006) [8] points out, key features of human cognitive architecture and empirical evidence about leveraging that architecture to optimize learning have been known for decades.”
BackgroundInfluentialAmagir, A., van den Brink, H. M., Groot, W. N. J., & Wilschut, A. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2021.100605 · Cited by 32
A Practical Guide and a Constructivist Rationale for Inquiry Based Learning.
Duffy, T. M., & Raymer, P. L. (2010) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 30
Preparing e-Learning Designers Using Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning.
Dunlap, J. C., Dobrovolny, J., & Young, D. R. (2008) · NSUWorks (Nova Southeastern University) · Cited by 31
Flip-Flops in Students' Conceptions of State
Herman, G. L., Zilles, C. B., & Loui, M. C. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2011.2140372 · Cited by 31
“Pedagogies that focus on reducing cognitive load have been shown to improve conceptual learning and problem solving [41], [42].”
BackgroundDwyer, C. P., Hogan, M., Harney, O., & O’Reilly, J. (2014) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-014-9360-7 · Cited by 38
“…as a beneficial approach to teaching and learning, enhancement of learning via the constructivist approach has been criticised for lacking empirical evidence to indicate that novice learners gain knowledge in a given subject area through ‘learning by doing’ (Mayer 2004; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundBarak, M., & Asad, K. (2012) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2012.656084 · Cited by 31
“This is unlikely, because having the teacher present the basic theory is often a useful way of introducing a new subject to learners, as suggested by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundÇelikler, D., & Aksan, Z. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.306 · Cited by 31
Khalil, M. K., & Kibble, J. D. (2014) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00055.2014 · Cited by 32
“At the early stage of students’ development, guided instruction is viewed to be superior to minimally guided instructional approaches (27).”
BackgroundBugarc̀ić, A., Zimbardi, K., Macaranas, J. M., & Thorn, P. (2012) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.20587 · Cited by 31
“ate to the learner’s skill and knowledge base, is essential for inquiry-style classes to produce learning gains that are superior to traditional ‘‘recipe-type’’ teaching styles [7].”
BackgroundMavrikis, M., & Gutiérrez-Santos, S. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.08.033 · Cited by 31
“As already noted in Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), in order to enable effective learning, students have to be adequately supported.”
BackgroundLiljeström, A., Enkenberg, J., & Pöllänen, S. H. (2012) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-012-9416-0 · Cited by 31
Reynolds, R. B., & Chiu, M. M. (2013) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2013.779585 · Cited by 37
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) critique ‘discovery-based learning’ on the whole for its lack of structure, citing that such experiences create excessive cognitive load, frustration and de-motivation due to distraction in the resource search process, and over-taxation of working memory.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPutting Structure to Flipped Classrooms Using Team-Based Learning.
Jakobsen, K. V., & Knetemann, M. (2017) · International journal on teaching and learning in higher education · Cited by 29
Volet, S., Jones, C., & Vauras, M. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.05.002 · Cited by 31
Bringing Earth Observation to Schools with Digital Integrated Learning Environments
Hodam, H., Rienow, A., & Jürgens, C. (2020) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs12030345 · Cited by 31
“While constructivist theory and its role in knowledge construction is widely accepted, its actual application is the subject of ongoing discussion, and after centuries of research, it still leaves experts in doubt of its efficiency [21,22].”
BackgroundRooney, C. (2012) · Educational Journal of Living Theories · Cited by 31
Morris-Mathews, H., Stark, K. R., Jones, N. D., Brownell, M. T., & Bell, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219420941804 · Cited by 30
“Based on the diverse needs present in contemporary classrooms and the research regarding LRI (Martin, 2016), it is possible that teachers who work with vulnerable learners outside of special education could be disincentivized to adjust instruction to be less constructivist.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe authenticity dilemma: towards a theory on the conditions and effects of authentic learning
Nachtigall, V., Shaffer, D. W., & Rummel, N. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00892-9 · Cited by 36
“To promote cognitive processing and thus learning, cognitive load theorists emphasize the need for direct instructional guidance which refers to the provision of “information that fully explains the concepts and procedures that students are required to learn” (Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 75).”
Jahan, A., & Kormos, J. (2013) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12049 · Cited by 35
Does Instructional Approach Matter? How Elaboration Plays a Crucial Role in Multimedia Learning
Eysink, T. H. S., & de Jong, T. (2011) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.611776 · Cited by 33
“First of all, Kirschner et al.’s (2006) main argument is based on learners working in unsupported environments.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBruyckere, P. D., Kirschner, P. A., & Hulshof, C. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801537-7.00003-2 · Cited by 34
Self-citationBlikstein, P., Fuhrmann, T. R., & Salehi, S. (2016) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-016-9623-7 · Cited by 30
“The literature further suggests that while multiple representations can help students understand underlying sci-entific concepts, they can also be overwhelming to new learners who may not know what are appropriate elements of each representation on which to focus (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAsshoff, R., Düsing, K., Winkelmann, T., & Hammann, M. (2019) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2019.1575263 · Cited by 29
“However, the material given to the students and the goal of the teaching approach encompassed guided instructional approaches as well (for discussion, see Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006; Sweller, Kirschner, and Clark, 2007; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn, 2007; Rieß and Mischo, 2017).”
BackgroundReilly, C. M., Kang, S., Grotzer, T. A., Joyal, J. A., & Oriol, N. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12843 · Cited by 27
Oliver, M., Ariza, M. R., Quesada, A., Gallego, A. M. A., & Sorensen, P. (2019) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/109658 · Cited by 38
“These findings support Lazonder and Harmsen’s (2016) meta-analysis, “that guidance has a significant positive effect on inquiry learning activities, performance success, and learning outcomes” (p.23) and reinforce the views of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundResultWatson, S. W., Dubrovskiy, A. V., & Peters, M. L. (2020) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c9rp00235a · Cited by 30
Olaniyi, N. (2020) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1186/s41039-020-0122-3 · Cited by 30
Investigating Collaboration as a Process with Theory-driven Learning Analytics
Kent, C., & Cukurova, M. (2020) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2020.71.5 · Cited by 31
Reforming teaching methods by integrating dental theory with clinical practice for dental students
Wang, W., Bi, X., Zhu, Y., et al. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.8477 · Cited by 30
Measuring and Fostering Preservice Chemistry Teachers’ Scientific Reasoning Competency
Bicak, B. E., Borchert, C., & Höner, K. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11090496 · Cited by 30
“Since these demands occupy working memory space not directed to learning, especially open inquiry is seen to be ineffective due to cognitive overload [49].”
BackgroundAvsec, S., & Savec, V. F. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su131810443 · Cited by 38
“Some issues have arisen concerning the efficacy of active learning approaches since Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark [49] have argued that any active learning with minimal guidance leads to working memory overload.”
BackgroundDever, D. A., Amon, M. J., Vrzáková, H., Wiedbusch, M. D., Cloude, E. B., & Azevedo, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813677 · Cited by 32
“While full agency has been hypothesized to increase learning outcomes due to increased interest and engagement related to discovery learning (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006), learners are notoriously incapable of engaging in effective SRL.”
BackgroundUniversitas Negeri Yogyakarta, I., Rafiq, A., Triyono, M. B., Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, I., Djatmiko, I. W., & Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, I. (2022) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2023.16137a · Cited by 50
“This investigation shows that PBL medical students fared somewhat lower on basic science examinations but better on clinical tests than traditional medical students (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialFrancis, A. L., & Flanigan, A. E. (2012) · doi:10.1234/mr.v7i3.166 · Cited by 30
Exploratory behavior in active learning: A between- and within-person examination
Hardy, J. H., Day, E. A., Hughes, M. G., Wang, X., & Schuelke, M. J. (2014) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.06.005 · Cited by 34
Stroet, K., Opdenakker, M., & Minnaert, A. E. M. G. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893561 · Cited by 30
Zottmann, J., Goeze, A., Frank, C., Zentner, U., Fischer, F., & Schrader, J. (2011) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2010.539885 · Cited by 33
“A variety of authors have recently emphasized the need to provide adequate instructional support for learners (e.g. Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundFeldon, D. F. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9085-2 · Cited by 30
Blair, K. P. (2013) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/2485760.2485814 · Cited by 30
Authoring Model-Tracing Cognitive Tutors
Blessing, S. B., Gilbert, S. B., Ourada, S., et al. (2009) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2009-19(2)04 · Cited by 30
Smart Management in Effective Schools
Hofman, R. H., & Hofman, R. H. (2011) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x11400186 · Cited by 30
Adding a design perspective to study learning environments in higher professional education
Zitter, I., de Bruijn, E., Simons, P. R. J., & ten Cate, O. (2010) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-010-9336-4 · Cited by 31
“On the other side, is the minimal guidance approach which foster learning by challenging students to solve ‘‘authentic’’ problems or acquire complex knowledge in information-rich settings and in which minimal support is offered (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning when serious: Psychophysiological evaluation of a technology-enhanced learning game
Cowley, B. U., Fantato, M., Jennett, C. I., Ruskov, M., & Ravaja, N. (2014) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 31
Khaled, A. E., Gulikers, J. T. M., Biemans, H. J. A., van der Wel, M., & Mulder, M. (2014) · Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.1080/13636820.2014.917696 · Cited by 38
“Providing guidance is even essential for novice and intermediate students as they are not naturally completely self-directed learners (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundInquiry-based Learning and Digital Libraries in Undergraduate Science Education
Apedoe, X. S., & Reeves, T. C. (2006) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9020-8 · Cited by 30
“Finally, students engaged in inquiry activities are able to develop insight into the processes and methods of science, although the evidence for these deeper cognitive outcomes is weak (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sandoval, 2005).”
BackgroundVartiainen, H., Liljeström, A., & Enkenberg, J. (2012) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.3217/jucs-018-15-2097 · Cited by 32
Design and Implementation of the Game-Design and Learning Program
Akcaoğlu, M. (2016) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-016-0022-y · Cited by 35
“Results of research comparing guided versus pure discovery learning methods favor guided discovery learning when teaching thinking skills (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004; Salomon and Perkins 1987).”
BackgroundCombining experiential and conceptual learning in accounting education: A review with implications
Rodgers, W., Simon, J., & Gabrielsson, J. (2016) · Management Learning · doi:10.1177/1350507616669479 · Cited by 30
“Other forms of critique include the risk of putting aside the role of theory and professional content and instead letting students discover things for themselves in a kind of educational ‘laissez-faire’ (Kirschner et al., 2006; Tomkins and Ulus, 2015).”
BackgroundLeblebicioğlu, G., Abik, N. M., Çapkınoğlu, E., et al. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9652-0 · Cited by 30
Discovery learning: zombie, phoenix, or elephant?
Bakker, A. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9450-8 · Cited by 37
“…dive into the history of the special issue’s topic: The more recent debate has been dominated by attacks on a version of discovery learning that no sensible educator would endorse, and that all contributors to this special issue quickly dismiss: minimal guidance (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundChen, R. T. (2010) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · Cited by 30
Cognitive Load Theory: An Applied Reintroduction for Special and General Educators
Kennedy, M. J., & Romig, J. E. (2021) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00400599211048214 · Cited by 44
“For example, reading a word list should require less intrinsic processing than reading and comprehending a story that uses the same words because the reader must hold more information in working memory when reading for comprehension than when reading words off a list.”
InfluentialBoon, M., Orozco, M., & Sivakumar, K. (2022) · European Journal for Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s13194-022-00447-z · Cited by 52
“However, educational research provides ample evidence that the development of HOTS requires deliberate training and scaffolding, rather than developing ‘naturally’ in PjBL settings (Barzilai & Zohar, 2014; Brookhart, 2010; Collins, 2014; Hattie, 2010; Higgins et al., 2005; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Khosa & Volet, 201…”
BackgroundWeerasinghe, M., Quigley, A. J., Pucihar, K. Č., Toniolo, A., Miguel, A., & Kljun, M. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2022.3203088 · Cited by 43
“Debates about the impact of instructional guidance and “how much” instructional support needs to be provided in a learning environment have been ongoing for at least the past century [47, 54, 64, 95].”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, W., Pedaste, M., Lin, C., Lee, H., Huang, Y., & Wu, T. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2024.2331151 · Cited by 32
“This fi nding aligns with the fi ndings of Kirschner et al. (2006), highlighting that e ff ective feedback can provide learners with speci fi c guidance, thereby enhancing hans-on abilities.”
Thomas, M., Muscat, A., Zuccolo, A., Luguetti, C., & Watt, A. P. (2025) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-025-09807-y · Cited by 53
“Kirschner et al. (2006) noted discomfort and reluctance by academic staff when implementing IBL due to the shift required in the academic moving from the role of the teacher to the facilitator.”
Facebook Addiction: A Study of Big-Five Factors and Academic Performance amongst Students of IUB
Mahmood, S., & Farooq, U. (2014) · Global Journal of Management and Business Research · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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