The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
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Items 701–800 of 6,869
Collaboration modality, cognitive load, and science inquiry learning in virtual inquiry environments
Erlandson, B. E., Nelson, B. C., & Savenye, W. C. (2010) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9152-7 · Cited by 64
“Another challenge, cited by Kirschner et al. (2006) , is that guided inquiry in technologybased environments is more powerful than wholly open-ended exploration.”
BackgroundWheeler, L. B., Clark, C., & Grisham, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00831 · Cited by 63
Methodological Issues in Science Education Research: A Perspective from the Philosophy of Science
Taber, K. S. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7654-8_57 · Cited by 64
(2007) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 63
Introduction to Using Games in Education: A Guide for Teachers and Parents
Moursund, D. G. (2012) · Cited by 62
The fault lines of recontextualisation: the limits of constructivism in education
McPhail, G. J. (2015) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3199 · Cited by 62
Ten Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning
Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.009 · Cited by 76
Self-citationHecker, K. G., & Violato, C. (2008) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401330801991915 · Cited by 64
Courtade, G. R., Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., & DiBiase, W. J. (2010) · Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/215416471004500307 · Cited by 62
“Second, some experts have questioned the whole premise of minimal guidance during instruction as being inconsistent with research on how students learn (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Merchie, E., & Keer, H. V. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.05.005 · Cited by 78
Automated Personalized Feedback in Introductory Java Programming MOOCs
Marin, V. J., Pereira, T., Sridharan, S., et al. (2017) · Proceedings - International Conference on Data Engineering · doi:10.1109/icde.2017.169 · Cited by 62
Tools for "contributing student learning"
Hamer, J., Luxton-Reilly, A., Purchase, H. C., & Sheard, J. (2011) · ACM Inroads · doi:10.1145/1963533.1963553 · Cited by 61
Kognitive Aktivierung im Mathematikunterricht
Pauli, C., Drollinger-Vetter, B., Hugener, I., et al. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.22.2.127 · Cited by 61
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundSelf-regulated strategy development in writing: Going beyond NLEs to a more balanced approach
Harris, K. R., Santangelo, T., & Graham, S. (2008) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9062-9 · Cited by 61
“approaches such as Readers’ Workshop, Writers’ Workshop) (Atwell 1987; Graves 1985; Pathey-Chavez et al. 2004; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Baeten, M., Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Struyven, K. (2012) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-012-0116-7 · Cited by 67
“…for offering structuring support to student-centred teaching methods (Struyven et al. 2006) and for installing knowledge in the long-term memory (Kirschner et al. 2006), it might be expected that combining student-centred teaching methods and lectures offering direct instructional guidance will…”
BackgroundInfluentialWard, J. R., Clarke, H. D., & Horton, J. L. (2014) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.13-12-0231 · Cited by 72
Modelling Creativity: Identifying Key Components through a Corpus-Based Approach
Jordanous, A., & Keller, B. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162959 · Cited by 66
Sweller, J. (2007) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch31 · Cited by 72
“That ignorance is being rectified and increasing numbers of investigators are reacting against the previous orthodoxy (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUsing a three‐dimensional thinking graph to support inquiry learning
Chen, J., Wang, M., Grotzer, T. A., & Dede, C. (2018) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21450 · Cited by 63
“Instructional guidance on structuring the inquiry process has proved effective (Kirschner et al., 2006; Linn & Songer, 1991; Njoo & de Jong, 1993b; Quintana et al., 2004; White, 1993).”
BackgroundIs Inquiry Science Instruction Effective for English Language Learners? A Meta-Analytic Review
Estrella, G., Au, J., Jaeggi, S. M., & Collins, P. (2018) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858418767402 · Cited by 70
“There have been concerns that although inquiry instruction may provide rich benefits to highperforming students by providing them with opportunities to apply, test, and deepen their understanding of science (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004), students with less exposure to science are less likely to have th…”
BackgroundInfluentialGuided Play: A Solution to the Play Versus Learning Dichotomy
Toub, T. S., Rajan, V., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2016) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29986-0_5 · Cited by 68
Näykki, P., Isohätälä, J., & Järvelä, S. (2021) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2021.100536 · Cited by 75
Böttcher, F., & Meisert, A. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9271-0 · Cited by 73
Simulations, learning and real world capabilities
Wood, R. E., Beckmann, J. F., & Birney, D. P. (2009) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/00400910910987273 · Cited by 62
“The use of minimal guidance for novices working on complex simulations is contrary to the large body of evidence from cognitive load theory research that suggests that guidance to regulate the cognitive load leads to better learning than self-directed exploration ( Kirschner et al. , 2006”
MethodVirtual reality classroom as an constructivist approach
Sharma, S., Agada, R., & Ruffin, J. (2013) · Proceedings of IEEE Southeastcon · doi:10.1109/secon.2013.6567441 · Cited by 60
“Constructivism theory [15,16] states that humans generate knowledge by interacting with the environment and learning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas.”
Demonstration-Based Training: A Review of Instructional Features
Rosen, M., Salas, E., Pavlas, D., Jensen, R., Fu, D., & Lampton, D. (2010) · Hum. Factors · doi:10.1177/0018720810381071 · Cited by 67
Embedding engaged learning in high enrollment lecture-based classes
Dean, K. L., & Wright, S. (2016) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-016-0070-4 · Cited by 60
Engaged Learning: Impact of PBL and PjBL with Elementary and Middle Grade Students
Dole, S., Bloom, L. A., & Doss, K. K. (2017) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1685 · Cited by 60
Hammond, L. S., & Moore, W. (2018) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2018v43n7.7 · Cited by 59
Cognitive Load Theory, Resource Depletion and the Delayed Testing Effect
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09476-2 · Cited by 59
Self-citationWell-Being as a Cognitive Load Reducing Agent: A Review of the Literature
Hawthorne, B. S., Vella‐Brodrick, D., & Hattie, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00121 · Cited by 79
“According to Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), learning occurs when information is processed and moved from working memory into long term memory with this new information being effectively “stored” in long term memory which can be later retrieved as required (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAreepattamannil, S., Cairns, D., & Dickson, M. (2020) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/1046560x.2020.1753309 · Cited by 59
“As explained by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) this type of open inquiry can lead to cognitive overload and result in students not accessing the main learning intentions of an activity.”
BackgroundMinkley, N., Xu, K. M., & Krell, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.632907 · Cited by 65
“As such, cognitive load is an established construct in education and psychology, often used as a guidance to optimize instructional designs (e.g., Paas and van Merriënboer, 1994; Kirschner et al., 2006) and is considered as a control variable in assessment contexts (e.”
BackgroundDietrich, J., Greiner, F., Weber-Liel, D., Berweger, B., Kämpfe, N., & Kracke, B. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106819 · Cited by 71
Ge, X., Planas, L. G., & Er, N. (2010) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1093 · Cited by 59
“When students explore complex problems in a PBL environment, the problems may generate a heavy load on students’ working memory due to their lack of proper schemas to integrate new information with their prior knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDeveloping a Framework for Creating Effective Instructional Video Podcasts
Kay, R. H. (2014) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v9i1.3335 · Cited by 67
How guidance affects student engagement with an interactive simulation
Chamberlain, J. M., Lancaster, K., Parson, R., & Perkins, K. K. (2014) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c4rp00009a · Cited by 59
Drake, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · doi:10.28945/1546 · Cited by 60
Integrating Real-Life Data Analysis in Teaching Descriptive Statistics: A Constructivist Approach
Libman, Z. (2010) · Journal of Statistics Education · doi:10.1080/10691898.2010.11889477 · Cited by 60
“A second argument is that a learning situation that encourages personal investigation in a reallife context is rich and complex; it does not prescribe one correct way of learning about reality, or one correct answer (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialEileen Scanlon, A., Anastopoulou, S., Kerawalla, L., & Mulholland, P. (2011) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00414.x · Cited by 70
Brain-(not) Based Education: Dangers of Misunderstanding and Misapplication of Neuroscience Research
Alferink, L. A., & Farmer‐Dougan, V. A. (2010) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362830903462573 · Cited by 67
“Data strongly support the use of precision teaching, mastery learning approaches, and programs such as DISTAR or direct instruction ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Mills, Cole, Jenkins, & Dale, 2002 ; Ryder, Burton, & Silberg, 2006 ; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2000 ).”
Näykki, P., Järvenoja, H., Järvelä, S., & Kirschner, P. A. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2015.1066440 · Cited by 59
Self-citationMartin, A. J., & Evans, P. (2018) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2018.03.018 · Cited by 60
Working memory and difficulties in school chemistry
Hussein, F. K. A., & Reid, N. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140902853632 · Cited by 57
“Kirschner et al. (2006) gave powerful backing, from a cognitive load perspective, that the limiting capacity of working memory was critical in developing understandings for learning.”
BackgroundDalcroze meets technology: integrating music, movement and visuals with the Music Paint Machine
Nijs, L. (2017) · Music Education Research · doi:10.1080/14613808.2017.1312323 · Cited by 66
“Taking into account the previous aspects, it is important to find a balance between freedom and constraints (Greenhead and Habron 2015; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundDiscovery Learning in Management Education: Design and Case Analysis
Druckman, D., & Ebner, N. (2017) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562917720710 · Cited by 57
“The findings also contribute to the debate between Kirschner et al. (2006) and Schmidt et al. (2007) on amount and type of guidance.”
Nygren, T., Guath, M., Axelsson, A., & Frau‐Meigs, D. (2021) · Information · doi:10.3390/info12050201 · Cited by 73
Statistical Learning in Word Reading and Spelling across Languages and Writing Systems
Rebecca Treiman, A., & Brett Kessler, A. (2021) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2021.1920951 · Cited by 58
Wang, H., Hong, Z., She, H., Smith, T. J., Fielding-Wells, J., & Lin, H. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00329-z · Cited by 99
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem‑based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundAndersen, S. A. W., Foghsgaard, S., Konge, L., et al. (2015) · The Laryngoscope · doi:10.1002/lary.25710 · Cited by 58
“Individual guidance and tutoring by human instructors can benefit learning, especially for novice learners 23 ; at the same time, it has been demonstrated that feedback results in rapid skills acquisition but also rapid skill deterioration when feedback is unavailable.”
BackgroundTeaching computer science through problems, not solutions
Fee, S. B., & Holland-Minkley, A. M. (2010) · Computer Science Education · doi:10.1080/08993408.2010.486271 · Cited by 58
“This does not mean that there is no structure to the process as some might suggest (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ).”
BackgroundConsequences of contextual factors on clinical reasoning in resident physicians
McBee, E. C., Ratcliffe, T. A., Picho, K., Artino, A. R., Schuwirth, L., Kelly, W. F., Masel, J., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Durning, S. J. (2015) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-015-9597-x · Cited by 58
Towards evidence-based clinical supervision: the development and evaluation of four CBT guidelines
Milne, D. L., & Dunkerley, C. (2010) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x10000048 · Cited by 58
“As noted above, yet another factor is the generally negative attitude that many practitioners appear have towards EBP (Dyer, 2008) and their preference for a minimally guided, constructivist approach (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundUnified View of Science and Technology for Education: Technoscience and Technoscience Education
Tala, S. (2008) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-008-9145-7 · Cited by 63
Efficient Learning for the Poor: New Insights into Literacy Acquisition for Children
Abadzi, H. (2008) · International Review of Education · doi:10.1007/s11159-008-9102-3 · Cited by 57
The Effectiveness of E‐Learning Systems: A Review of the Empirical Literature on Learner Control
Sorgenfrei, C., & Smolnik, S. (2016) · Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education · doi:10.1111/dsji.12095 · Cited by 71
Shifting dimensions of autonomy in students’ research and employment
Willison, J., Sabir, F., & Thomas, J. (2016) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2016.1178216 · Cited by 59
Hester, S. D., Nadler, M., Katcher, J., Elfring, L. K., Dykstra, E. A., Rezende, L. F., & Bolger, M. S. (2018) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.18-06-0090 · Cited by 58
“inquiry and unscaffolded “discovery learning” (Kirschner et al., 2006), even very open-ended inquiry is often highly scaffolded to support student success (e.”
BackgroundThe History of Computing Education Research
Guzdial, M., & du Boulay, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.002 · Cited by 66
Lee, E., Kourgiantakis, T., & Bogo, M. (2020) · Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/02615479.2019.1620723 · Cited by 58
Quality of teaching in higher education: reviewing teaching behaviour through classroom observations
Noben, I., Deinum, J. F., & Hofman, R. H. (2020) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/1360144x.2020.1830776 · Cited by 62
Loyens, S. M. M., Wijnia, L., Duker, I., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.861 · Cited by 62
Salter, I. Y., & Elliott, L. A. (2011) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-011-9250-3 · Cited by 59
“Feasibility: Kirschner et al. (2006) and Settlage (2007) argue that researchsupported examples of open-inquiry in real classroom settings are uncommon if not impossible to find.”
BackgroundFarrington, J. (2011) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1002/piq.20099 · Cited by 71
Feldon, D. F., Franco, J., Chao, J., Peugh, J., & Maahs-Fladung, C. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.04.007 · Cited by 70
Frèrejean, J., van Geel, M. J. M., Keuning, T., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Visscher, A. J. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09540-x · Cited by 78
Homer, B. D., & Plass, J. L. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.041 · Cited by 60
“The students were ethnically diverse, with 52% identifying as being ‘‘Hispanic or Latino’’, 32% identifying as ‘‘Black or African American’’, 1.5% students identifying as ‘‘Arabic’’, 1.5% as ‘‘Asian’’, 1.5% as ‘‘White’’ and the remaining 10.5% of the students declining to identify an ethnicity.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Design Model of Distributed Scaffolding for Inquiry-Based Learning
Hsu, Y., Lai, T.-L., & Hsu, W.-H. (2014) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-014-9421-2 · Cited by 57
“In contrast, other researchers believe that students ’ inquiry learning with reduced teacher intervention is less efficient and they emphasize the importance of explicit teaching (e.g., Holliday 2001; Kirschner et al. 2006; Krajcik et al. 1998a, b; Lederman 2006).”
ResultMotivating students and lecturers for education in sustainable development
Mulder, K. F., Ferrer, D., Coral, J. S., Kordas, O., Nikiforovich, E., & Pereverza, K. (2015) · International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/ijshe-03-2014-0033 · Cited by 59
Polly, P., Marcus, N., Maguire, D., Belinson, Z., & Velan, G. M. (2014) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-14-222 · Cited by 59
“Self-paced, guided learning has been shown to improve learning [21].”
BackgroundFyfe, E. R., DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12035 · Cited by 69
Primary pre-service teachers’ skills in planning a guided scientific inquiry
García–Carmona, A., Criado, A., & Cruz-Guzmán, M. (2016) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9536-8 · Cited by 57
Using cognitive load theory to structure computer‐based learning including MOOCs
Chen, O., Woolcott, G., & Sweller, J. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12188 · Cited by 69
Self-citationSpruijt, A. M., Dekker, M. C., Ziermans, T. B., & Swaab, H. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.004 · Cited by 68
Successful learning: balancing self-regulation with instructional planning
Vrieling, E., Stijnen, S., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2017) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2017.1414784 · Cited by 57
Sharp, H., Hudson, S. M., Weatherby-Fell, N., Charteris, J., Brown, B., Lodge, J. M., McKay‐Brown, L., Sempowicz, T., Buchanan, R., Imig, S. R., et al. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009571234 · Cited by 55
The role of motivational factors in predicting STEM career aspirations
Ahmed, W., & Mudrey, R. R. (2018) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2017.1401499 · Cited by 67
“Researchers also warn that uninformed use of such an instructional approach may have detrimental effects on motivation and interest (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundAI-Induced guidance: Preserving the optimal Zone of Proximal Development
Ferguson, C., van den Broek, E. L., & van Oostendorp, H. (2022) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100089 · Cited by 72
Ssemugenyi, F. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2187943 · Cited by 56
“Its conformity to structured learning content in a restricted timeframe is questionable (P. A. Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundEvaluating Adaptive Feedback in an Educational Computer Game
Conati, C., & Manske, M. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04380-2_18 · Cited by 56
“However, building these connections on one own is a form of exploratory or discovery learning, and there is extensive evidence that not all students are proficient in these activities , because they lack relevant metacognitive skills such as self-explanation and self-monitoring) [10, 20].”
Background‘Wicked Problems’ and the Work of the School
Murgatroyd, S. (2010) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2010.01428.x · Cited by 56
Zahn, C., Krauskopf, K., Hesse, F., & Pea, R. (2012) · Int. J. Comput. Support. Collab. Learn. · doi:10.1007/s11412-012-9145-0 · Cited by 56
“Also, from a recent discussion on constructivist-learning approaches (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006; Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007), we learn that students need guidance allowing them to learn collaboratively in complex domains (Hmelo-Silver et al. 2007).”
BackgroundChen, C. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.015 · Cited by 56
Promoting effective collaborative case-based learning at university: a metacognitive intervention
Khosa, D. K., & Volet, S. (2011) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2011.604409 · Cited by 56
“1996 ), and evidence of their effectiveness in enhancing content understanding remains contentious (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007 ; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006 ).”
BackgroundSchmid, S. R., & Bogner, F. X. (2015) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/826734 · Cited by 56
Johnston, L. H., & Milne, D. L. (2012) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x12000013 · Cited by 61
“Recent research within educational psychology would seriously question the rationale for minimal guidance and a lack of feedback (e.g. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundPrescriptive Principles for Instructional Design
Merrill, M., Barclay, M., & Schaack, A. V. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch14 · Cited by 56
Wu, J., & Peng, Y.-C. (2016) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2016.1224251 · Cited by 59
Attention Guidance Strategies for Supporting Learning from Dynamic Visualizations
de Koning, B. B., & Jarodzka, H. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56204-9_11 · Cited by 56
Improving Oral Communicative Competence in English Using Project-Based Learning Activities
Bakar, N. I. A., Noordin, N. B., & Razali, A. B. (2019) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v12n4p73 · Cited by 56
Ayres, P. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3142 · Cited by 55
Hwang, J., Choi, K. M., Bae, Y., & Shin, D. H. (2018) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-018-9909-8 · Cited by 61
Horn, M., & Bers, M. U. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.023 · Cited by 63
Two-Dimensional Parson’s Puzzles: The Concept, Tools, and First Observations
Ihantola, P., & Karavirta, V. (2011) · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · doi:10.28945/1394 · Cited by 56
“The continuous feedback is also supported by the findings of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) who conclude that novices should be given more guidance when they do not have sufficient prior knowledge.”
ResultSchoppek, W., & Tulis, M. (2010) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903382962 · Cited by 61
“…Address correspondence to Wolfgang Schoppek, Psychology, Uni-versitaetsstrasse 30, Bayreuth, The finding that minimally guided instruction often fails to produce significant learning outcomes in lower achieving children (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) can also be attributed to a lack of skills.”
BackgroundFeldon, D. F., Timmerman, B. C., Stowe, K. A., & Showman, R. M. (2010) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20382 · Cited by 55
“Evenwhen instruction is engaging and student-centered (e.g., problem-based, inquiry-oriented), failure to provide the information necessary to solve problems successfully, can impede students’ academic progress (Jonassen, Tessmer, & Hannum, 1999; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Effects of degree of segmentation and learner disposition on multimedia learning
Doolittle, P. E., Bryant, L. H., & Chittum, J. R. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12203 · Cited by 56
Effects of Two Scientific Inquiry Professional Development Interventions on Teaching Practice
Grigg, J. A., Kelly, K. A., Gamoran, A., & Borman, G. D. (2012) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373712461851 · Cited by 56
“Difficulty of implementation is a critical problem, since incomplete implementation may harm students if it leaves them without sufficient guidance to navigate the learning process (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Template of Events for Applied and Critical Healthcare Simulation (TEACH Sim)
Benishek, L. E., Lazzara, E. H., Gaught, W. L., Arcaro, L. L., Okuda, Y., & Eduardo Salas, A. (2014) · Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000058 · Cited by 55
“Approaching design systematically results in a standardized and structured learning experience(23) that is advantageous for learning compared with minimal guidance.(22) In fact, multiple empirical investigations and reviews have established solid evidence in favor of structured, guided learning.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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