The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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Items 601–700 of 6,869
McMullan, M., Jones, R. B., & Lea, S. J. (2011) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2010.10.021 · Cited by 78
Lee, J. C., Zhang, Z., Song, H., & Huang, X. (2013) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2013v38n12.3 · Cited by 71
Fixed group and opportunistic collaboration in a CSCL environment
Siqin, T., van Aalst, J., & Chu, S. K. W. (2015) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-014-9206-7 · Cited by 72
“…in larger groups there may be a more extraneous cognitive load — a requirement for short-term memory that does not contribute to learning (see Kirschner et al. 2006) — but in smaller groups there may not be sufficient idea diversity to make conceptual progress (Hewitt and Brett 2007; Kim…”
BackgroundTechnology and Student Learning: Towards a Learner-Centered Teaching Model
Keengwe, J., Onchwari, G., & Onchwari, J. A. (2009) · AACE journal · Cited by 72
Model-based learning: a synthesis of theory and research
Seel, N. M. (2017) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9507-9 · Cited by 78
1 Designing Serious Games for education: from Pedagogical principles to Game Mechanisms
Bellotti, F., Berta, R., de Gloria, A., Ott, M., Arnab, S., de Freitas, S., & Kiili, K. (2011) · Murdoch University Research Portal · Cited by 73
Chi, S., Liu, X., Wang, Z., & Han, S. W. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1476742 · Cited by 71
Dawson, P., & Sutherland‐Smith, W. (2018) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1531109 · Cited by 70
“However, it is worth acknowledging that alerting untrained markers to the potential of contract cheating and asking them to detect it resulted in an increase from Lines’ (2016) and Medway et al.”
BackgroundMethodThe effect of chatbots on learning: a meta-analysis of empirical research
Alemdağ, E. (2023) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2023.2255698 · Cited by 87
“Learners with low self-regulation skills and prior knowledge can encounter problems in such environments and experience cognitive load while directing their learning processes with minimal guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
How to make guided discovery learning practical for student teachers
Janssen, F. J. J. M., Westbroek, H. B., & DRIEL, J. H. V. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9296-z · Cited by 72
“There is ample evidence that unguided or minimally GDL is not effective (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004) and that the success of discovery learning critically depends on how it GDL practical for student teachers 69”
BackgroundImpact of guidance on the problem-solving efforts of instructional design novices
Ertmer, P. A., Stepich, D. A., Flanagan, S. M., Kocaman-Karoğlu, A., Reiner, C., Reyes, L., Santone, A., & Ushigusa, S. (2009) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1002/piq.20041 · Cited by 71
“To address this difficulty, Kirschner et al. (2006) proposed guidance as a key strategy for helping novices acquire problem-solving skills, primarily because it reduces cognitive load.”
BackgroundRead-only participants: a case for student communication in online classes
Nagel, L., Blignaut, A. S., & Cronjé, J. C. (2008) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820701501028 · Cited by 71
“The current vogue to embrace a constructivist pedagogy where the instructor withdraws from the online learning environment, allegedly to promote discovery and experimental learning activities, is unsubstantiated (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundJitendra, A. K., Dupuis, D., Rodriguez, M. C., Zaslofsky, A. F., Slater, S. C., Corroy, K. A., & Church, C. (2013) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/673199 · Cited by 72
Ramnarain, U. D. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21315 · Cited by 82
She, H., Cheng, S., & Huang, L.-Y. (2017) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/ejmste/80902 · Cited by 85
“To guide learners in solving complex problems, appropriate instructional support should be provided and integrated into the learning environment (Kirschner et al. 2006; Van Merrienboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodAn embodied agent helps anxious students in mathematics learning
Kim, Y., Thayne, J., & Wei, Q. (2017) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9476-z · Cited by 70
The Nature of Scientific Practice and Science Education
García–Carmona, A., & Acevedo-Díaz, J. A. (2018) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-018-9984-9 · Cited by 70
Cognitive load theory in the context of second language academic writing
Al-Fattah, N. A. (2018) · Higher Education Pedagogies · doi:10.1080/23752696.2018.1513812 · Cited by 114
Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Waddington, D. I., & Pickup, D. I. (2019) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1017 · Cited by 110
“Dewey criticized this approach in Experience and Education (Dewey, 1938) , and, more recently, Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) published an influential piece that argued that the practice of turning kids loose to learn defies many of the tenets of the psychological principles of working memory…”
Fanchamps, N. L. J. A., Slangen, L., Hennissen, P., & Specht, M. M. (2019) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-019-09559-9 · Cited by 78
“This calls into question the assertions of Kirschner et al. (2006) who claim that offering a fully directly guided instruction, compared to a more open form of guidance, provides sufficient understanding to achieve impact and greater learning efficiency.”
BackgroundFries, L., Son, J. Y., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09561-x · Cited by 98
Ouyang, F., Chen, Z., Cheng, M., Tang, Z., & Su, C. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-021-00273-y · Cited by 90
“…guided instruction is intuitively appealing for collaborative learning design, it may not always lead to desirable outcomes, such that instructors need to provide some forms of scaffoldings to support student collaboration (Hmelo-Silver & DeSimone, 2013; Hong & Lin, 2019; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultAttard, C., Berger, N., & Mackenzie, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.693221 · Cited by 116
Active Learning in STEM Education with Regard to the Development of Inquiry Skills
Ješková, Z., Lukáč, S., Šnajder, Ľ., Guniš, J., Klein, D., & Kireš, M. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12100686 · Cited by 116
Morris, D. L. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15010073 · Cited by 192
“This approach is particularly effective for students new to scientific inquiry, as it provides the scaffolding necessary to build foundational skills while minimizing cognitive overload (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Effects of representational guidance during computer-supported collaborative learning
Janssen, J. J. H. M., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kanselaar, G. (2008) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9078-1 · Cited by 70
Self-citationComputer literacy and inquiry learning: when geeks learn less
Wecker, C., Kohnle, C., & Fischer, F. (2007) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00218.x · Cited by 68
“It seems clear from an empirical perspective, that some instructional guidance is crucial for the success of learners in these environments (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLearning From Simulation Design to Develop Better Experiential Learning Initiatives
Canhoto, A. I., & Murphy, J. (2016) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/0273475316643746 · Cited by 70
“The common characteristic among the various types of experiential learning activities is that students work with authentic problems, in an information-rich environment, and must develop their own solutions for those problems (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundDesigning Effective Feedback Messages in Serious Games and Simulations: A Research Review
Johnson, C. I., Bailey, S. K. T., & Buskirk, W. L. V. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39298-1_7 · Cited by 89
Instructional Theory and Technology for the New Paradigm of Education
Reigeluth, C. M. (2016) · Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) · doi:10.6018/red/50/1b · Cited by 70
Do individual differences in children’s curiosity relate to their inquiry-based learning?
van Schijndel, T. J. P., Jansen, B. R. J., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1460772 · Cited by 68
Quantum talk: How small‐group discussions may enhance students’ understanding in quantum physics
Bungum, B., Bøe, M. V., & Henriksen, E. K. (2018) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21447 · Cited by 80
Yu, Y., Landrum, A. R., Bonawitz, E. B., & Shafto, P. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12696 · Cited by 67
Lin, X., Yang, W., Wu, L., Zhu, L., Wu, D., & Li, H. (2020) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2020.1795333 · Cited by 86
“Kirschner et al. (2006) have argued that minimal guidance will only work when learners have sufficient prior knowledge to provide self-guidance.”
BackgroundKnowledge Building: Advancing the State of Community Knowledge
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65291-3_14 · Cited by 70
Curzon, P., Bell, T., Waite, J., & Dorling, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.018 · Cited by 85
Finding One’s Place in Transfer Space
Klahr, D., & Chen, Z. (2011) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00171.x · Cited by 69
On mathematical understanding: perspectives of experienced Chinese mathematics teachers
Cai, J., & Ding, M. (2015) · Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10857-015-9325-8 · Cited by 84
Critical Thinking in the Business Classroom
Reid, J. R., & Anderson, P. R. (2011) · Journal of Education for Business · doi:10.1080/08832323.2011.557103 · Cited by 68
“Borrowing heavily from Merrill ( 2002 , 2007 ); Clark, Yates, Early, and Moulton ( 2006 ); and Kirshner, Sweller, and Clark ( 2006 ), Foshay et al.”
Instructional Implications of David C. Geary's Evolutionary Educational Psychology
Sweller, J. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520802392208 · Cited by 69
“Instructional procedures that assume learners can acquire biologically secondary knowledge by “immersion” (Kirschner et al., 2006) in the same way as they can acquire biologically primary knowledge flow, at least in part, from our previous failure to distinguish between these two categories of…”
BackgroundSelf-citationParents’ Experiences Following Children’s Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
Roscigno, C. I., & Swanson, K. M. (2011) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732311410988 · Cited by 69
“Without assistance to process the pile up of complicated information, parents found it more difficult to process, retain, and synthesize it (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundContextualization in Perspective
Son, J. Y., & Goldstone, R. L. (2008) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000802584539 · Cited by 76
Students’ agency profiles in relation to student-perceived teaching practices in university courses
Jääskelä, P., Poikkeus, A., Häkkinen, P., Vasalampi, K., Rasku‐Puttonen, H., & Tolvanen, A. J. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101604 · Cited by 69
Habig, B., & Gupta, P. (2021) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-021-00314-y · Cited by 77
Impact of extended reality on architectural education and the design process
Kharvari, F., & Kaiser, L. E. (2022) · Automation in Construction · doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104393 · Cited by 82
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND ONLINE INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE READING: EVIDENCE FROM EYE TRACKING
Ho, H. N. J., Tsai, M., Wang, C. Y., & Tsai, C. (2013) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-013-9489-6 · Cited by 76
Is the doer effect a causal relationship?
Koedinger, K. R., McLaughlin, E. A., Jia, J. Z., & Bier, N. L. (2016) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2883851.2883957 · Cited by 68
Zahid, M. A., Varghese, R., Mohammed, A. M., & Ayed, A. K. (2016) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.5749.80f5 · Cited by 69
Biggers, M. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9556-4 · Cited by 77
An Application of Context- and Problem-Based Learning (C-PBL) into Teaching Thermodynamics
Baran, M., & Sözbi̇li̇r, M. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9583-1 · Cited by 68
Children’s use of interventions to learn causal structure
McCormack, T., Bramley, N. R., Frosch, C. A., Patrick, F., & Lagnado, D. A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.017 · Cited by 64
“We note that there is a long-standing debate in the literature on children’s scientific learning over whether ‘‘hands-on’’ learning is more beneficial than more passive learning (e.g., Bruner, 1961; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundProblem-based Learning and Theories of Teaching and Learning in Health Professional Education
Gewurtz, R. E., Coman, L., Dhillon, S. K., Jung, B., & Solomon, P. (2016) · Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice · doi:10.14297/jpaap.v4i1.194 · Cited by 67
“…students with opportunities for choice and encouraging students to accept responsibility for their learning (Albanese, 2000); However, other evidence suggests that more structure and guidance is needed to help novice learners understand and integrate complex information (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBelland, B. R., Walker, A. E., & Kim, N. J. (2017) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654317723009 · Cited by 90
“For example, many posit that using direct instruction is best at promoting strong conceptual knowledge (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundDonnelly-Hermosillo, D. F., O’Reilly, J., & McGarr, O. (2012) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-012-9322-1 · Cited by 72
“Research also exists to argue against the proposed advantages of teaching through inquiry in that students can become frustrated in inquiry settings and may not gain greater conceptual understanding from inquiry compared to direct instruction (Cobern et al. 2010; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundGames, Learning, and Society: Building a Field.
Squire, K. D. (2007) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 67
The progress test of medicine: the Dutch experience
Tio, R. A., Schütte, B., Meiboom, A. A., Greidanus, J. W., Dubois, E. A., Bremers, A. J. A., & Dutch Working Group (2016) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-015-0237-1 · Cited by 67
“Critics may question the validity of such a programme and argue that students taught in this way may develop deficiencies in their knowledge [2].”
BackgroundPatterns of inquiry-based science instruction and student science achievement in PISA 2015
Forbes, C. T., Neumann, K., & Schiepe-Tiska, A. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1730017 · Cited by 92
“…of guided inquiry over both traditional, direct instruction and entirely studentdirected inquiry learning (e.g. Furtak et al., 2012; Minner et al., 2010; Schroeder et al., 2007) and contribute to theoretical perspectives on the nature of science instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006; Settlage, 2007).”
BackgroundWang, M., Wu, B., Kirschner, P. A., & Spector, J. M. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.024 · Cited by 79
Self-citationToward a Learning Philosophy Based on Experience in Entrepreneurship Education
Hägg, G., & Kurczewska, A. (2019) · Entrepreneurship Education and Pedagogy · doi:10.1177/2515127419840607 · Cited by 77
Wiliam, D. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316832134.003 · Cited by 69
A Critical Review of Constructivist Theory and the Emergence of Constructionism
(2016) · American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.21694/2378-7031.16018 · Cited by 66
“Page 6 providing students with minimal instruction to build their own knowledge through the scaffolding process is sufficient (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Effect of Worked Examples When Learning to Write Essays in English Literature
Kyun, S., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.727884 · Cited by 66
Self-citationRe-examining cognition during student-centered, Web-based learning
Hannafin, M. J., Hannafin, K. M., & Gabbitas, B. W. (2009) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-009-9117-x · Cited by 68
Conklin, T. A. (2012) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562912456296 · Cited by 67
“As Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) discuss, providing clear instructional guidance is an important element in teaching.”
BackgroundWeaver, J. P., Chastain, R. J., DeCaro, D. A., & DeCaro, M. S. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.12.003 · Cited by 76
“…too difficult for students (e.g., DeCaro, DeCaro, & Rittle-Johnson, 2015; Kirschner et al., 2006) and that more traditional direct instruction methods may yield better learning outcomes in some cases (cf. Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialOECD (2014) · Teaching and learning international survey · doi:10.1787/23129638 · Cited by 66
Salari, M., Roozbehi, A., Zarifi, A., & Tarmizi, R. A. (2018) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1305-0 · Cited by 66
Mental Models of Mere Mortals with Explanations of Reinforcement Learning
Anderson, A. W., Dodge, J. E., Sadarangani, A., Juozapaitis, Z., Newman, E., Irvine, J., Chattopadhyay, S., Olson, M., Fern, A., & Burnett, M. (2020) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/3366485 · Cited by 70
“When trying to solve problems (in this case, figure out an AI with the help of explanations), people can experience at least three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, germane, and extraneous [20, 24, 49, 53].”
BackgroundDesign science research for learning software engineering and computational thinking: Four cases
Apiola, M., & Sutinen, E. (2020) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22291 · Cited by 70
“In general, some educators or educational researchers have a strong preference for minimally guided pedagogies [48], while others prefer active, student ‐ centred and open ‐ ended learning [28,68].”
BackgroundInfluentialInquiry-based chemistry education: a systematic review
Jegstad, K. M. (2023) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2023.2248436 · Cited by 73
Games are motivating, aren´t they? Disputing the arguments for digital game-based learning
Westera, W. (2015) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v2i2.58 · Cited by 75
“In the last decades, however, various review studies have demonstrated and re-established the impotence of the minimal guidance approaches [44-46].”
BackgroundHora, M. T. (2015) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21175 · Cited by 72
The impact of PBL on transferable skills development in management education
Carvalho, A. (2015) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2015.1020327 · Cited by 65
Kopp, B., Matteucci, M. C., & Tomasetto, C. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.019 · Cited by 64
Schaap, H., de Bruijn, E., van der Schaaf, M. F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009) · Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.1080/13636820903230999 · Cited by 70
“Long‐term memory incorporates a massive knowledge base that is central to all of our cognitively‐based activities, while working memory is where cognitive processing occurs (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006 ; Meijer 1999 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationIs Inquiry-Based Science Teaching Worth the Effort?
Zhang, L. (2016) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-016-9856-0 · Cited by 77
“However, their arguments did not seem to acknowledge the original concerns of Kirschner et al. (2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Theoretical and Methodological Opportunities Afforded by Guided Play With Young Children
Yu, Y., Shafto, P., Bonawitz, E., Yang, S. C.-H., Golinkoff, R. M., Corriveau, K. H., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Xu, F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01152 · Cited by 59
“How to best navigate between explicit, objective-directed learning and more flexibly driven exploration has been a longstanding topic of debate in education, developmental psychology, and cognitive science (Kirschner et al., 2006; Tobias and Duffy, 2009).”
BackgroundVirtues and Vices in Positive Psychology: A Philosophical Critique
Kristjansson, K. R. (2013) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 64
Tropper, N., Leiß, D., & Hänze, M. (2015) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-015-0718-z · Cited by 64
A Guided Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Approach: Impact on Critical Thinking
Nargundkar, S., Samaddar, S., & Mukhopadhyay, S. (2014) · Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education · doi:10.1111/dsji.12030 · Cited by 64
Exploring embedded guidance and self-efficacy in educational multi-user virtual environments
Nelson, B. C., & Ketelhut, D. J. (2008) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-008-9049-1 · Cited by 65
“For example, Kirschner et al. (2006) argue that constructivist learning environments with minimal guidance cannot work because they ignore the cognitive processing research into the structure of human memory systems.”
BackgroundHow prevention curricula are taught under real‐world conditions
Miller-Day, M. A., Pettigrew, J., Hecht, M. L., Shin, Y., Graham, J., & Krieger, J. L. R. (2013) · Health Education · doi:10.1108/09654281311329259 · Cited by 72
Orchestrating Inquiry Learning
(2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203136195 · Cited by 65
Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition
Kloos, H., Morris, B. J., & Amaral, J. L. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/1162 · Cited by 64
Brahm, T., Jenert, T., & Wagner, D. (2016) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-016-0095-8 · Cited by 74
Teaching historical thinking and reasoning: Construction of an observation instrument
Gestsdóttir, S. M., van Boxtel, C., & van Drie, J. P. (2018) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3471 · Cited by 64
A collective organizational learning model for organizational development
Lau, K. W., Lee, P. Y., & Chung, Y. Y. (2018) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/lodj-06-2018-0228 · Cited by 64
Programming Paradigms and Beyond
Krishnamurthi, S., & Fisler, K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.014 · Cited by 69
Liu, Z., Moon, J., Kim, B., & Dai, C. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09791-4 · Cited by 69
“…researchers have underscored the importance of deliberate learning supports in educational games (e.g., material presentation, modeling, and feedback) to promote learning and enrich the learning experience in educational games (Kirschner et al. 2006; Mayer 2004; Wouters and van Oostendorp 2013).”
BackgroundLipowsky, F. (2014) · Springer-Lehrbuch · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41291-2_4 · Cited by 75
Considerations Relating to the Study of Group Differences in Intelligence
Hunt, E., & Carlson, J. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00037.x · Cited by 64
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When feedback is cognitively-demanding: the importance of working memory capacity
Fyfe, E. R., DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2014) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-014-9323-8 · Cited by 75
“Thus, learners are more familiar with outcome-feedback, and as familiarity with a technique increases, WM resources are used to a lesser extent (Anderson 1982; Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundExpanding and Embedding Digital Literacies: Transformative Agency in Education
Lund, A., Furberg, A., & Guðmundsdóttir, G. B. (2019) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.v7i2.1880 · Cited by 88
“Knobel and Lankshear (2006) introduced three aspects amounting to the plural “digital literacies”: information, which is typically connected to the creation or communication of information; epistemic engagement with information, such as validating or deciding the reliability of the information;…”
BackgroundKapur, M., Hattie, J., Grossman, I., & Sinha, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.956416 · Cited by 95
“The underlying logic is, that when teaching a new concept, it is best to give students instruction on the content first followed by problem-solving, elaboration, and mastery of the content (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Brod, G., Kucirkova, N. I., Shepherd, J., Jolles, D., & Molenaar, I. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09749-x · Cited by 101
“Conversely, students with low levels of prior knowledge struggle with choosing appropriate learning environments and tasks to work on (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundDigital Fabrication Laboratories: Pedagogy and Impacts on Architectural Education
Celani, G. (2012) · Nexus Network Journal · doi:10.1007/s00004-012-0120-x · Cited by 71
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Elementary school students’ strategic learning: does task-type matter?
Malmberg, J., Järvelä, S., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-013-9108-5 · Cited by 71
“Ill-structured learning tasks instead might end in avoidance behaviour and the use of self-handicapping strategies (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOptimal Contrast: Competition Between Two Referents Improves Word Learning
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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